Spatial Variation in Residential Soil Lead Contamination and Associated Exposure Risks for Pregnant Women in Kabwe, Zambia
Keywords:
Lead exposure, Soil pollution, Pregnant women, Mining, Public health
Abstract
Kabwe, Zambia, has experienced persistent environmental lead (Pb) contamination following decades of lead-Zinc mining and smelting activities. Although spatial variation in Pb distribution has been documented, limited data exist on how these patterns translate into exposure risks for pregnant women, a highly vulnerable population. Studies have revealed that once absorbed, Pb accumulates in bones for decades where it becomes a source of endogenous exposure for pregnant women through bone resorption, resulting in potential irreversible health effects on the unborn baby. The present study was conducted to determine Pb levels in soils from homes of pregnant women living in selected townships of Kabwe District, Zambia. A comparative Cross Sectional study was conducted where sampling of study population involved three stages involving Health facilities, pregnant women and households for soil sampling. Health facilities were purposively sampled based on their provision of maternity services and location in proximity to and away from the Pb mine. Pregnant women were sampled using Simple Random Sampling based on antenatal attendance registers. Then households where the women resided were purposively selected for soil sampling. A total of 510 households were included in the study, with township-specific sample sizes proportionally allocated based on population served by the Health Facilities: Makululu (179), Kasanda (106), Katondo (100), and Mahatma Gandhi (125).. Lead levels were analysed using a Microwave Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometer. Data were analysed in R version 4.5.1 and summarised using frequency tables, scatterplots, and bar charts. The median soil Pb concentration was 389.8 mg/kg (IQR: 53.4, 2,044.6), with 48.8% of households exceeding the maximum limit of 400 mg/kg. The highest concentrations were found in Makululu (2,044.6 mg/kg) and Kasanda (916.7 mg/kg) townships, while Katondo (44.3 mg/kg) and Mahatma Gandhi (47.9 mg/kg) townships recorded significantly lower levels (p<0.001). Residential proximity to the historical mining site remains a major determinant of soil Pb contamination and exposure risk among pregnant women in Kabwe. In order to reduce exposure, a coordinated, multisectoral action is required. The Kabwe Municipal Council should prioritize soil remediation and dust control in high-risk areas, while the Ministry of Infrastructure, Housing and Urban Development should improve housing units and paving of Makululu to reduce dust exposure. The Ministry of Health must integrate routine Pb screening and management into antenatal and child health services alongside lead prevention awareness and education programs for communities. The Zambia Environmental Management Agency should enforce environmental regulations to prevent further contamination.References
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27. Ikenaka Y, Nakayama SMM, Muzandu K, Choongo K, Teraoka H, Mizuno N, et al. Heavy metal contamination of soil and sediment in Zambia. Afr J Environ Sci Technol. 2010;4(11):729–39. doi:doi.org/10.4314/ajest.v4i11.71339
28. Zingani E, Ndhlovu G, Chiluba BC. Assessment of lead content in soil samples obtained from four different sites of Kabwe, Central Province of Zambia. Int J Environ Sustain Soc Sci. 2020;1(1):41–6.
29. Moonga G, Chisola MN, Berger U, Nowak D, Yabe J, Nakata H, et al. Geospatial approach to investigate spatial clustering and hotspots of blood lead levels in children within Kabwe, Zambia. Environ Res. 2022 May 1;207:112646. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2021.112646
30. Yabe J, Nakayama SM, Ikenaka Y, Muzandu K, Choongo K, Mainda G, et al. Metal distribution in tissues of free‐range chickens near a lead–zinc mine in Kabwe, Zambia. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2013;32(1):189–92. doi:10.1002/etc.2029
31. Yabe J, Nakayama SM, Ikenaka Y, Yohannes YB, Bortey-Sam N, Oroszlany B, et al. Lead poisoning in children from townships in the vicinity of a lead–zinc mine in Kabwe, Zambia. Chemosphere. 2015;119:941–7.
32. Yamada D, Hiwatari M, Hangoma P, Narita D, Mphuka C, Chitah B, et al. Assessing the population-wide exposure to lead pollution in Kabwe, Zambia: an econometric estimation based on survey data. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):1–11. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-71998-5
33. Hiwatari M, Yamada D, Narita D, Hangoma P, Chitah B. Toxic pollution and poverty: Economic impacts of lead (Pb) exposure on household welfare in Zambia. Ecol Econ. 2024;221:108209. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108209
2. Gonzalez-Villalva A, Marcela RL, Nelly LV, Patricia BN, Guadalupe MR, Brenda CT, et al. Lead systemic toxicity: A persistent problem for health. Toxicology. 2025 Aug 1;515:154163. doi:10.1016/j.tox.2025.1541632
3. Bose-O’Reilly S, Yabe J, Makumba J, Schutzmeier P, Ericson B, Caravanos J. Lead intoxicated children in Kabwe, Zambia. Environ Res. 2018 Aug 15;165. doi:10.1016/J.ENVRES.2017.10.0243
4. Yabe J, Nakayama SM, Nakata H, Toyomaki H, Yohannes YB, Muzandu K, et al. Current trends of blood lead levels, distribution patterns and exposure variations among household members in Kabwe, Zambia. 2020, Chemosphere.;243:125412.
3. Yu D. Lead exposure in the 21st century: Modeling a path from crisis to prevention. Eco-Environ Health. 2025;4(3):100159.
4. Kao CS, Wang YL, Chuang TW, Jiang CB, Hsi HC, Liao KW, et al. Effects of soil lead exposure and land use characteristics on neurodevelopment among children under 3 years of age in northern Taiwan. Environ Pollut. 2021;286:117288.
5. Yu D. Lead exposure in the 21st century: Modeling a path from crisis to prevention. Eco-Environ Health. 2025 May 29;4(3):100159. doi:10.1016/j.eehl.2025.100159 PubMed PMID: 40687512; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC12274306.5
6 Kao CS, Wang YL, Chuang TW, Jiang CB, Hsi HC, Liao KW, et al. Effects of soil lead exposure and land use characteristics on neurodevelopment among children under 3 years of age in northern Taiwan. Environ Pollut. 2021 Oct 1;286:117288. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117288
7. Laidlaw MAS, Egendorf SP, Mielke HW. Potential links between urban lead (Pb) in home soil/dust and the development of Preeclampsia/Eclampsia. 2025, 2(3):100687.
8. Naicker N, Richter L, Mathee A, Becker P, Norris SA. Environmental lead exposure and socio-behavioural adjustment in the early teens: the birth to twenty cohort. 2012;414:120–5.
9. Yabe J, Nakayama SM, Ikenaka Y, Yohannes YB, Bortey-Sam N, Oroszlany B, et al. Lead poisoning in children from townships in the vicinity of a lead–zinc mine in Kabwe, Zambia. Chemosphere. 2015;119:941–7. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.09.028
10. Yabe J, Nakayama SM, Ikenaka Y, Yohannes YB, Bortey-Sam N, Kabalo AN, et al. Lead and cadmium excretion in feces and urine of children from polluted townships near a lead-zinc mine in Kabwe, Zambia. Chemosphere. 2018;202:48–55. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.03.079
11. Gardella C. Lead exposure in pregnancy:: a review of the literature and argument for routine prenatal screening. Obstet Gynecol Surv 2001;56(4):231–8.
12. Patočka J, Černý K. Inorganic lead toxicology. Acta Medica (Hradec Kralove) 2003;46(2):65–72.
13. Toyomaki H, Yabe J, Nakayama SM, Yohannes YB, Muzandu K, Mufune T, et al. Lead concentrations and isotope ratios in blood, breastmilk and feces: Contribution of both lactation and soil/dust exposure to infants in a lead mining area, Kabwe, Zambia. Environ Pollut 2021;117456.
14. Lanphear BP, Matte TD, Rogers J, Clickner RP, Dietz B, Bornschein RL, et al. The contribution of lead-contaminated house dust and residential soil to children’s blood lead levels: a pooled analysis of 12 epidemiologic studies. 1998;79(1):51–68.
15. Naples-Mitchell J. “We Have to Be Worried.” Hum Rights Watch [Internet]. 2019.Available from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2019/08/23/we-have-be-worried/impact-lead-contamination-childrens-rights-kabwe-zambia
16. Tembo BD, Sichilongo K, Cernak J. Distribution of copper, lead, cadmium and zinc concentrations in soils around Kabwe town in Zambia. Chemosphere. 2006;63(3):497–501.
17. Nakayama SM, Ikenaka Y, Hamada K, Muzandu K, Choongo K, Teraoka H, et al. Metal and metalloid contamination in roadside soil and wild rats around a Pb–Zn mine in Kabwe, Zambia. Environ Pollut. 2011;159(1):175–81.
18. Moonga G, Chisola MN, Berger U, Nowak D, Yabe J, Nakata H, et al. Geospatial approach to investigate spatial clustering and hotspots of blood lead levels in children within Kabwe, Zambia. Environ Res. 2022;207:112646. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2021.112646
19. Alonso E, Cambra K, Martinez T. Lead and cadmium exposure from contaminated soil among residents of a farm area near an industrial site. Arch Environ Health. 2001;56(3):278–82. doi:10.1080/00039890109604454 PubMed PMID: 11480506.
20. Ohtsu M, Mise N, Ikegami A, Mizuno A, Kobayashi Y, Nakagi Y, et al. Oral exposure to lead for Japanese children and pregnant women, estimated using duplicate food portions and house dust analyses. Environ Health Prev Med. 2019 Dec 5;24(1):72. doi:10.1186/s12199-019-0818-4
21. Tembo M, Kataba A, Soe NC, Doya R, Musonda R, Zyambo G, et al. Significant reduction of blood and tissue lead and cadmium concentrations in free-range and broiler chickens through soil remediation with biochar, phosphates, and calcined dolomite: Implications for public health and food safety. J Hazard Mater Adv. 2025;20:100907.
22. Gulson BL, Mizon KJ, Korsch MJ, Palmer JM, Donnelly JB. Mobilization of lead from human bone tissue during pregnancy and lactation—a summary of long-term research. Sci Total Environ. 2003;303(1–2):79–104. doi:10.1016/S0048-9697(02)00355-8
23. Yabe J, Ishizuka M, Umemura T. Current levels of heavy metal pollution in Africa. J Vet Med Sci. 2010;72(10):1257–63. doi:10.1292/jvms.10-0058
24. Bose-O’Reilly S, Yabe J, Makumba J, Schutzmeier P, Ericson B, Caravanos J. Lead intoxicated children in Kabwe, Zambia. Environ Res. 2018;165:420–4. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2017.10.024
25. Caravanos J, Fuller R, Robinson S. Severe Environmental Contamination and Elevated Blood Lead Levels Among Children—Zambia, 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep [Internet]. 2014;63(44):1013. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/acclpp/blood_lead_levels.htm
27. Ikenaka Y, Nakayama SMM, Muzandu K, Choongo K, Teraoka H, Mizuno N, et al. Heavy metal contamination of soil and sediment in Zambia. Afr J Environ Sci Technol. 2010;4(11):729–39. doi:doi.org/10.4314/ajest.v4i11.71339
28. Zingani E, Ndhlovu G, Chiluba BC. Assessment of lead content in soil samples obtained from four different sites of Kabwe, Central Province of Zambia. Int J Environ Sustain Soc Sci. 2020;1(1):41–6.
29. Moonga G, Chisola MN, Berger U, Nowak D, Yabe J, Nakata H, et al. Geospatial approach to investigate spatial clustering and hotspots of blood lead levels in children within Kabwe, Zambia. Environ Res. 2022 May 1;207:112646. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2021.112646
30. Yabe J, Nakayama SM, Ikenaka Y, Muzandu K, Choongo K, Mainda G, et al. Metal distribution in tissues of free‐range chickens near a lead–zinc mine in Kabwe, Zambia. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2013;32(1):189–92. doi:10.1002/etc.2029
31. Yabe J, Nakayama SM, Ikenaka Y, Yohannes YB, Bortey-Sam N, Oroszlany B, et al. Lead poisoning in children from townships in the vicinity of a lead–zinc mine in Kabwe, Zambia. Chemosphere. 2015;119:941–7.
32. Yamada D, Hiwatari M, Hangoma P, Narita D, Mphuka C, Chitah B, et al. Assessing the population-wide exposure to lead pollution in Kabwe, Zambia: an econometric estimation based on survey data. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):1–11. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-71998-5
33. Hiwatari M, Yamada D, Narita D, Hangoma P, Chitah B. Toxic pollution and poverty: Economic impacts of lead (Pb) exposure on household welfare in Zambia. Ecol Econ. 2024;221:108209. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108209
Published
2026-02-25
How to Cite
1.
Sakala D, Yabe J, Fwemba I, Munyinda N, Tembo N, Tembo M, Halwiindi H, Ishizuka M, Nakayama S. Spatial Variation in Residential Soil Lead Contamination and Associated Exposure Risks for Pregnant Women in Kabwe, Zambia. Journal of Agricultural and Biomedical Sciences [Internet]. 25Feb.2026 [cited 13Apr.2026];10(2). Available from: https://journals.unza.zm/index.php/JABS/article/view/1660
Section
Biomedical Sciences
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