Knowledge of Mercury (Hg) Toxicity and Human Exposure: A PLS-SEM Mediation Analysis of Water, Vegetables, and Fish Consumption in Kitwe Mining Area, Zambia
Keywords:
Mercury toxicity; structural equation modelling; Knowledge and awareness; mediation analysis; Exposure assessment
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) in all forms (Hg0, Hg2++, Hg++; CH3Hg+) is a neurotoxicant that causes Minamata disease, which is characterised by permanent brain damage, central nervous system disorder and kidney damage. This study aimed to establish the role of Hg awareness in reducing exposure through the consumption of contaminated water, fish, and vegetables. A cross-sectional descriptive survey was conducted on 306 participants who consisted of fish and vegetable farmers and their households in the Kitwe mining area. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for the descriptives, and the partial least squares structural equation modelling was also used for the analysis. The results showed that the level of knowledge of Hg toxicity of the participants had a positive impact on the attitudes toward Hg exposure through the consumption of vegetables (Original sample (O) = 0.705, t = 32.568, P < 0.05). The participants who had environmental knowledge about the effects of effluents from the mining and industrial processes on the environment were more health-conscious about the source of vegetables for consumption. However, Hg consumption through vegetables did not meaningfully influence overall Hg exposure (Original sample (O) = 0.019, t = 0.118, P = 0.906). The knowledge of Hg toxicity has a positive effect on the attitudes towards Hg exposure through the consumption of fish (Original sample (O) = 0.763, t = 37.977, P < 0.05). The level of knowledge of the participants had a positive impact on their attitudes toward Hg exposure through the consumption of fish. The result in the current study also shows that participants who were knowledgeable about Hg exposure through the consumption of fish were more likely to be mindful of the source of fish and vegetables they were consuming. In conclusion, overall, knowledge of Hg toxicity significantly shaped perceived exposure pathways, but the low explained variance in total Hg exposure (R² = 0.042) suggests that additional factors, particularly occupational exposure and socioeconomic conditions, play a substantial role. The findings highlight the need for integrated interventions that combine awareness, behavioural change strategies, and mitigation of external exposure sources to effectively reduce Hg-related health risks.References
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2. Morel FM, Kraepiel AM, Amyot M. The chemical cycle and bioaccumulation of mercury. Annual review of ecology and systematics. 1998 Nov;29(1):543-66.
3. Selin NE. Global biogeochemical cycling of mercury: a review. Annual review of environment and resources. 2009 Nov 21;34:43-6
4. Rice KM, Walker Jr EM, Wu M, Gillette C, Blough ER. Environmental mercury and its toxic effects. Journal of preventive medicine and public health. 2014 Mar 31;47(2):74.
5. Clarkson TW. Human toxicology of mercury. The Journal of Trace Elements in Experimental Medicine: The Official Publication of the International Society for Trace Element Research in Humans.1998;11(2‐3):303-17.
6. Wang WX, Wong RS. Bioaccumulation kinetics and exposure pathways of inorganic mercury and methylmercury in a marine fish, the sweetlips Plectorhinchus gibbosus. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 2003 Oct 17;261:257-68. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps261257
7. Boening DW. Ecological effects, transport, and fate of mercury: a general review. Chemosphere. 2000 Jun 1;40(12):1335-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(99)00283-0
8. Berlin M, Zalups RK. Mercury. Chapter 33 in:(eds). Nordberg GF, Fowler BA, Nordberg M, Friberg L. Handbook on the toxicology of metals, 3rd ed. ISBN 978-0-12-3694213-3. Academic Press Publishers, Elsevier. 943pp; 2007.
9. Mergler D, Anderson HA, Chan LH, Mahaffey KR, Murray M, Sakamoto M, Stern AH. Methylmercury exposure and health effects in humans: a worldwide concern. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment. 2007 Feb;36(1):3-1 https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447(2007)36[3:MEAHEI]2.0.CO;2
10. Yasuda M, Yustiawati, Syawal MS, Sikder MT, Hosokawa T, Saito T, Tanaka S, Kurasaki M. Metal concentrations of river water and sediments in West Java, Indonesia. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 2011 Dec;87(6):669-73.
11. Tomiyasu T, Kono Y, Kodamatani H, Hidayati N, Rahajoe JS. The distribution of mercury around the small-scale gold mining area along the Cikaniki River, Bogor, Indonesia. Environmental Research. 2013 Aug 1;125:12-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2013.03.015
12. Nakazawa K, Nagafuchi O, Kawakami T, Inoue T, Yokota K, Serikawa Y, Cyio B, Elvince R. Human health risk assessment of mercury vapour around artisanal small-scale gold mining area, Palu city, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 2016 Feb 1;124:155-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.09.042
13. Li R, Wu H, Ding J, Fu W, Gan L, Li Y. Mercury pollution in vegetables, grains and soils from areas surrounding coal-fired power plants. Scientific reports. 2017 May 9;7(1):46545. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep46545
14. Mahmud M, Lihawa F, Saleh Y, Desei F, Banteng B. Study of mercury concentration in plants in Traditional Buladu Gold Mining. InIOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 2019 Aug 1 (Vol. 314, No. 1, p. 012018). IOP Publishing.
15. Murphy TP, Irvine KN, Sampson M, Guo J, Parr T. Mercury contamination along the Mekong River, Cambodia. Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution. 2009 Feb;6(1):1-9. https://doi.org/10.3233/AJW-2009-6_1_01
16. Vieira C, Morais S, Ramos S, Delerue-Matos C, Oliveira MB. Mercury, cadmium, lead and arsenic levels in three pelagic fish species from the Atlantic Ocean: intra-and inter-specific variability and human health risks for consumption. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2011 Apr 1;49(4):923-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2010.12.016
17. Ngulube R, Katundu KN, Nyirenda K, Siakamba A. A review of Nchanga Tailings Dam operations and seasonal assessment of its effluent quality. American Journal of Environmental Protection. 2016 Jul 7;5(4):90-6.
18. Kříbek B, Nyambe I, Sracek O, Mihaljevič M, Knésl I. Impact of mining and ore processing on soil, drainage and vegetation in the Zambian copperbelt mining districts: a review. Minerals. 2023 Mar 9;13(3):384. https://doi.org/10.3390/min13030384
19. Podolský F, Ettler V, Šebek O, Ježek J, Mihaljevič M, Kříbek B, Sracek O, Vaněk A, Penížek V, Majer V, Mapani B. Mercury in soil profiles from metal mining and smelting areas in Namibia and Zambia: distribution and potential sources. Journal of soils and sediments. 2015 Mar;15(3):648-58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-014-1035-9
20. M’kandawire E, Choongo K, Yabe J, Mwase M, Saasa N, Nakayama SM, Bortey-Sam N, Blindauer CA. Sediment metal contamination in the Kafue River of Zambia and ecological risk assessment. Bulletin of environmental contamination and toxicology. 2017 Jul;99(1):108-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-017-2089-3
21. Gyamfi O, Wireko-Gyebi RS, Ansah E, Sorenson PB, King RS, Nkansah MA, Bak JL, Darko G. Assessment and awareness of health risks posed by mercury in artisanal gold mining in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. Chemistry Africa. 2022 Oct;5(5):1765-75. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42250-022-00453-x
22. Zheng QJ, Xu AX, Kong DY, Deng HP, Lin QQ. Correlation between the environmental knowledge, environmental attitude, and behavioural intention of tourists for ecotourism in China. Applied Ecology & Environmental Research. 2018 Jan 1;16(1).
23. Aluko OO, Adebayo AE, Adebisi TF, Ewegbemi MK, Abidoye AT, Popoola BF. Knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of occupational hazards and safety practices in Nigerian healthcare workers. BMC research notes. 2016 Feb 6;9(1):71.
24. Nguyen V, Thu HN, Le Thi H, Ngoc AN, Van DK, Thi QP, Nhu NT, Thanh TN, Quoc DN, Mai HP, Kim NT. Knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) on silicosis among high-risk worker population in five provinces in Vietnam. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Innovations for Sustainable and Responsible Mining: ISRM 2020-Volume 1 2020 Oct 26 (pp. 469-484). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-60839-2_25
25. Peša I. Mining, waste and environmental thought on the Central African Copperbelt, 1950-2000. Environment and History. 2022 May;28(2):259-84.
26. Lindahl J. Towards better environmental management and sustainable exploitation of mineral resources. SGU Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU). 2014 Jul;22.
27. Lyman O, Longnecker M. An introduction to statistical methods and data analysis. R R. Donnelley & Sons, Inc./Willard, United States of America. 2001:532-825.
28. Henseler J, Ringle CM, Sinkovics RR. The use of partial least squares path modelling in international marketing. In New challenges to international marketing 2009 Mar 6 (pp. 277-319). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1474-7979(2009)0000020014
29. Hair JF, Ringle CM, Sarstedt M. Partial least squares structural equation modelling: Rigorous applications, better results and higher acceptance. Long-range planning. 2013 Mar 14;46(1-2):1-2. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2233795
30. Machleit KA. Developing measures of latent constructs: A practical guide to psychometric theory. In Handbook of research methods in consumer psychology, 2019 Apr 15 (pp. 93-103). Routledge.
31. Chin WW. The partial least squares approach to structural equation modelling. InModern methods for Business Research 1998 Mar 1 (pp. 295-336). Psychology Press.
32. Clarkson TW, Magos L. The toxicology of mercury and its chemical compounds. Critical reviews in toxicology. 2006 Jan 1;36(8):609-62. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408440600845619
33. Kawakami T, Konishi M, Imai Y, Soe PS. Diffusion of mercury from artisanal small-scale gold mining (ASGM) sites in Myanmar. Geomate Journal. 2019;17(61):228-35.
34. Chin YS, De Pretto L, Thuppil V, Ashfold MJ. Public awareness and support for environmental protection—A focus on air pollution in peninsular Malaysia. PloS one. 2019 Mar 14;14(3):e0212206.
35. Lenzholzer S, Carsjens GJ, Brown RD, Tavares S, Vanos J, Kim Y, Lee K. Awareness of urban climate adaptation strategies–an international overview. Urban climate. 2020 Dec 1;34:100705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2020.100705
36. Biswas A, Biswas S, Santra SC. Risk from winter vegetables and pulses produced in arsenic endemic areas of Nadia District: field study comparison with market basket survey. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 2012 Jun;88(6):909-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-012-0569-z
37. Ricke IJ, Oglesby A, Lyden GR, Barrett ES, Moe S, Nguyen RH. Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behaviours Regarding Chemical Exposure among a Population Sample of Reproductive-Aged Women. International journal of environmental research and public health. 2022 Mar 4;19(5):3015. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19053015
38. Chen K, Deng T. Research on the green purchase intentions from the perspective of product knowledge. Sustainability. 2016 Sep 15;8(9):943. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8090943
39. Teixeira FB, De Oliveira AC, Leão LK, Fagundes NC, Fernandes RM, Fernandes LM, Da Silva MC, Amado LL, Sagica FE, De Oliveira EH, Crespo-Lopez ME. Exposure to inorganic mercury causes oxidative stress, cell death, and functional deficits in the motor cortex. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience. 2018 May 15;11:125.
40. Bernhoft RA. Mercury toxicity and treatment: a review of the literature. Journal of environmental and public health. 2012;2012(1):460508.
41. Ullah N, Ur Rehman M, Ahmad B, Ali I, Younas M, Aslam MS, Rahman AU, Taheri E, Fatehizadeh A, Rezakazemi M. Assessment of heavy metals accumulation in agricultural soil, vegetables and associated health risks. Plos one. 2022 Jun 16;17(6):e0267719.
42. Ahogle AM, Letema S, Schaab G, Ngure V, Mwesigye AR, Korir NK. Heavy metals and trace elements contamination risks in peri-urban agricultural soils in Nairobi city catchment, Kenya. Frontiers in Soil Science. 2023 Jan 12;2:1048057. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoil.2022.1048057
43. Tamar M, Wirawan H, Arfah T, Putri RP. Predicting pro-environmental behaviours: the role of environmental values, attitudes and knowledge. Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal. 2021 Feb 10;32(2):328-43.
44. Dinka DD. Journal of Health Education Research & Development. 2018
45. Scudder RC. Conditions Affecting Rural Fire Department Preparedness for Chemical Disasters in Northeast Oklahoma: A Case Study. Oklahoma State University; 2017.
46. Muchuweti M, Birkett JW, Chinyanga E, Zvauya R, Scrimshaw MD, Lester JN. Heavy metal content of vegetables irrigated with mixtures of wastewater and sewage sludge in Zimbabwe: implications for human health. Agriculture, ecosystems & environment. 2006 Jan 1;112(1):41-8.
47. Adjorlolo-Gasokpoh A, Golow AA, Kambo-Dorsa J. Mercury in the surface soil and cassava, Manihot esculenta (flesh, leaves and peel) near goldmines at Bogoso and Prestea, Ghana. Bulletin of environmental contamination and toxicology. 2012 Dec;89(6):1106-10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-012-0849-7
48. Noubissié E, Ngassoum MB, Ali A, Castro-Georgi J, Donard OF. Contamination of market garden soils by metals (Hg, Sn, Pb) and risk for vegetable consumers of Ngaoundéré (Cameroon). Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration. 2016 Dec;1(1):9.
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Published
2026-02-18
How to Cite
1.
Chisanga M, M’kandawire E, Choongo K, Mwaba S, Yabe J. Knowledge of Mercury (Hg) Toxicity and Human Exposure: A PLS-SEM Mediation Analysis of Water, Vegetables, and Fish Consumption in Kitwe Mining Area, Zambia. Journal of Agricultural and Biomedical Sciences [Internet]. 18Feb.2026 [cited 13Apr.2026];10(2). Available from: https://journals.unza.zm/index.php/JABS/article/view/1665
Section
Biomedical Sciences
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