Spousal Violence and Spousal Education Difference in Zambia a Cross Sectional Comparative Analysis of Three Demographic Health Survey Cycles
Keywords:
Spousal Violence, Spousal Education Difference, Demographic and Health Survey, Women, Zambia
Abstract
The study aimed to establish the association between spousal education difference and spousal violence among married women in Zambia. The article invokes individual women’s datasets from the 2007, 2013-14 and 2018 Zambia Demographic and Health Surveys (ZDHSs). Currently married women 15-49 years of age who had responded to the domestic violence module formed the core of the sample (2007: 3,216; 2013-14: 7.069; 2018:5,338). Multivariate binary logistic regression was performed to establish the association between spousal violence and spousal education differences and other factors. Adjusting for if a woman’s father “ever beat her mother” and for the notion that “wife beating is justifiable”, in survey years 2013-14 and 2018, women who had equally high education level as their husbands were less likely to have experienced spousal violence (aOR=0.81, p<0.05 and aOR=0.75, p<0.01 respectively) compared with those equally low educated. Other factors that associated with experience of spousal violence include if a woman is/was working, living in urban area, witnessing father beat mother, and acceptance of wife beating for any reason. Increasing education level attained by men and women is not a sufficient intervention to reducing spousal violence. Thus, addressing acceptance of beliefs that wife beating is justified under certain circumstances and parental physical violence which often are subtle and silent in perpetuating spousal violence in Zambia is critical.References
1. Ajayi CE, Chantler K, Radford L. The Role of Cultural Beliefs, Norms, and Practices in Nigerian Women’s Experiences of Sexual Abuse and Violence. Violence Against Women 2022;28:465–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012211000134.
2. Ahinkorah BO, Dickson KS, Seidu A-A. Women decision-making capacity and intimate partner violence among women in sub-Saharan Africa. Archives of Public Health 2018;76:5.
https://doi.org/10.1186 s13690-018-0253-9.
3. Bamiwuye, S.O., Odimegwu, C. Spousal violence in sub-Saharan Africa: does household poverty-wealth matter?. Reprod Health 11, 45 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-4755-11-45
4. Benebo FO, Schumann B, Vaezghasemi M. Intimate partner violence against women in Nigeria: a multilevel study investigating the effect of women’s status and community norms. BMC
Women’s Health 2018;18:136. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-018-0628-7.
5. Benson ML, Fox GL. When violence hits home: how economics and neighbourhood play a roleResearch in brief 2004.
6. Bolarinwa OA, Aliu M, Arthur-Holmes F, Aboagye RG, Seidu A-A, Ahinkorah BO, et al. Age of Sexual Debut and Modern Contraceptive Use Among Women of Reproductive Age in South Africa. Sexuality & Culture 2023;27:995–1009. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-022-10051-1
7. Bonnes S. Education and Income Imbalances Among Married Couples in Malawi as Predictors for Likelihood of Physical and Emotional Intimate Partner Violence. Violence and Victims 2016;31:51–70. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-14-00016.
8. Brownridge DA, Taillieu T, Afifi T, Chan KL, Emery C, Lavoie J, et al. Child Maltreatment and Intimate Partner Violence Among Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Canadians. J Fam Viol 2017;32:607–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-016-9880-5.
9. Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Health - Zambia, Tropical Diseases Research Center - Zambia, University of Zambia. Zambia Demographic and Health Survey 2007 2009.
10. Christofides NJ, Jewkes RK, Dunkle KL, McCarty F, Shai NJ, Nduna M, et al. Risk factors for unplanned and unwanted teenage pregnancies occurring over two years of follow-up among a cohort of young South African women. Global Health Action 2014;7:23719. https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v7.23719.
11. Chernet AG, Cherie KT. Prevalence of intimate partner violence against women and associated factors in Ethiopia. BMC Women’s Health 2020;20:22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-020-0892-1.
12. Garcia-Moreno C, Heise L, Hjansen HAFM, Ellsberg M, Watts C. Violence Against Women Science n.d. https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.1121400?casa)_
t o k e n = l 9 J c z H 6 f T O 0 A A A A A % 3 A 6 A K r X 3 s v s z z o k 5 e n b g 0 _ o Wu w F 0 a V _ ddYJuCZZfMxxoa9AxRc5wmFuS_wJgxOuf0u0MjkiDonsyICRmg (accessed August 1, 2023).
13. Gubi D, Nansubuga E, Wandera SO. Correlates of intimate partner violence among married women in Uganda: a cross-sectional survey. BMC Public Health 2020;20:1008.https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12889-020-09123-4.
14. Jewkes R. Intimate partner violence: causes and prevention. The Lancet 2002;359:1423–9. https://doi. org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08357-5.
15. Lasong J, Zhang Y, Muyayalo KP, Njiri OA, Gebremedhin SA, Abaidoo CS, et al. Domestic violence among married women of reproductive age in Zimbabwe: a cross sectional study. BMC Public Health 2020;20:354. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-8447-9.
16. Masaiti G, Mapoma CC, Sikwibele M, Kasonde M. The Relationship between Spousal Violence and Levels of Education: An Analysis of the Zambia Demographic and Health Survey 2013/14. International Journal of African Higher Education 2022;9:1–20. https://doi.org/10.6017/ijahe.v9i1.15229.
17. Monahan K. Intimate Partner Violence, Traumatic Brain Injury, and Social Work: Moving Forward. Social Work 2018;63:179–81. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/swy005.
18. Morgan W, Wells M. ‘It’s deemed unmanly’: men’s experiences of intimate partner violence (IPV). The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 2016;27:404–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2 015.1127986.
19. Mushibwe CP, Chambeshi M, Mpolomoka DL. Valuing Safehome Shelters for Victims of Violence in Lusaka Province, Zambia. JAIS 2021;5:41–56.
20. Ngao Loembe D. Association between women's level of education and their experience of intimate partner violence in Nigeria : A cross-sectional study. 2020.
21. Odimegwu C, Bamiwuye OS, Adedini SA. Gender-based violence as a new proximate determinant of fertility in sub-Saharan Africa. Southern African Journal of Demography 2015;16:87–121.
22. Pathak N, Dhairyawan R, Tariq S. The experience of intimate partner violence among older women: A narrative review. Maturitas 2019;121:63–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2018.12.011.
23. McKee JR, Payne BK. Witnessing Domestic Violence as a Child and Adulthood Emotionality: Do Adults “Feel” the Consequences of Exposure to Partner Abuse Later in the Life Course? Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma 2014;23:318–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2014.881947.
24. Rakovec-Felser Z. Domestic Violence and Abuse in Intimate Relationship from Public Health Perspective. Health Psychol Res 2014;2:1821. https://doi.org/10.4081/hpr.2014.1821.
25. Rapp D, Zoch B, Khan MMH, Pollmann T, Krämer A. Association between gap in spousal education and domestic violence in India and Bangladesh. BMC Public Health 2012;12:467. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-467.
26. Shaikh MA. Prevalence and Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence against Women in Liberia: Findings from 2019–2020 Demographic and Health Survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2022;19:3519. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063519.
27. Taillieu TL, Brownridge DA. Violence against pregnant women: Prevalence, patterns, risk factors, theories, and directions for future research. Aggression and Violent Behavior 2010;15:14–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2009.07.013.
28. Tiruye TY, Harris ML, Chojenta C, Holliday E, Loxton D. Determinants of intimate partner violence against women in Ethiopia: A multi-level analysis. PLOS ONE 2020;15:e0232217. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232217.
29. World Health Organisation. Understanding and addressing violence against women: Intimate partner violence. 2012.
30. Zambia Statistics Agency, Ministry of Health, University Teaching Hospital Virology Laboratory, ICF. Zambia Demographic and Health Survey 2018. 2019.
2. Ahinkorah BO, Dickson KS, Seidu A-A. Women decision-making capacity and intimate partner violence among women in sub-Saharan Africa. Archives of Public Health 2018;76:5.
https://doi.org/10.1186 s13690-018-0253-9.
3. Bamiwuye, S.O., Odimegwu, C. Spousal violence in sub-Saharan Africa: does household poverty-wealth matter?. Reprod Health 11, 45 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-4755-11-45
4. Benebo FO, Schumann B, Vaezghasemi M. Intimate partner violence against women in Nigeria: a multilevel study investigating the effect of women’s status and community norms. BMC
Women’s Health 2018;18:136. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-018-0628-7.
5. Benson ML, Fox GL. When violence hits home: how economics and neighbourhood play a roleResearch in brief 2004.
6. Bolarinwa OA, Aliu M, Arthur-Holmes F, Aboagye RG, Seidu A-A, Ahinkorah BO, et al. Age of Sexual Debut and Modern Contraceptive Use Among Women of Reproductive Age in South Africa. Sexuality & Culture 2023;27:995–1009. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-022-10051-1
7. Bonnes S. Education and Income Imbalances Among Married Couples in Malawi as Predictors for Likelihood of Physical and Emotional Intimate Partner Violence. Violence and Victims 2016;31:51–70. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-14-00016.
8. Brownridge DA, Taillieu T, Afifi T, Chan KL, Emery C, Lavoie J, et al. Child Maltreatment and Intimate Partner Violence Among Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Canadians. J Fam Viol 2017;32:607–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-016-9880-5.
9. Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Health - Zambia, Tropical Diseases Research Center - Zambia, University of Zambia. Zambia Demographic and Health Survey 2007 2009.
10. Christofides NJ, Jewkes RK, Dunkle KL, McCarty F, Shai NJ, Nduna M, et al. Risk factors for unplanned and unwanted teenage pregnancies occurring over two years of follow-up among a cohort of young South African women. Global Health Action 2014;7:23719. https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v7.23719.
11. Chernet AG, Cherie KT. Prevalence of intimate partner violence against women and associated factors in Ethiopia. BMC Women’s Health 2020;20:22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-020-0892-1.
12. Garcia-Moreno C, Heise L, Hjansen HAFM, Ellsberg M, Watts C. Violence Against Women Science n.d. https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.1121400?casa)_
t o k e n = l 9 J c z H 6 f T O 0 A A A A A % 3 A 6 A K r X 3 s v s z z o k 5 e n b g 0 _ o Wu w F 0 a V _ ddYJuCZZfMxxoa9AxRc5wmFuS_wJgxOuf0u0MjkiDonsyICRmg (accessed August 1, 2023).
13. Gubi D, Nansubuga E, Wandera SO. Correlates of intimate partner violence among married women in Uganda: a cross-sectional survey. BMC Public Health 2020;20:1008.https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12889-020-09123-4.
14. Jewkes R. Intimate partner violence: causes and prevention. The Lancet 2002;359:1423–9. https://doi. org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08357-5.
15. Lasong J, Zhang Y, Muyayalo KP, Njiri OA, Gebremedhin SA, Abaidoo CS, et al. Domestic violence among married women of reproductive age in Zimbabwe: a cross sectional study. BMC Public Health 2020;20:354. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-8447-9.
16. Masaiti G, Mapoma CC, Sikwibele M, Kasonde M. The Relationship between Spousal Violence and Levels of Education: An Analysis of the Zambia Demographic and Health Survey 2013/14. International Journal of African Higher Education 2022;9:1–20. https://doi.org/10.6017/ijahe.v9i1.15229.
17. Monahan K. Intimate Partner Violence, Traumatic Brain Injury, and Social Work: Moving Forward. Social Work 2018;63:179–81. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/swy005.
18. Morgan W, Wells M. ‘It’s deemed unmanly’: men’s experiences of intimate partner violence (IPV). The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 2016;27:404–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2 015.1127986.
19. Mushibwe CP, Chambeshi M, Mpolomoka DL. Valuing Safehome Shelters for Victims of Violence in Lusaka Province, Zambia. JAIS 2021;5:41–56.
20. Ngao Loembe D. Association between women's level of education and their experience of intimate partner violence in Nigeria : A cross-sectional study. 2020.
21. Odimegwu C, Bamiwuye OS, Adedini SA. Gender-based violence as a new proximate determinant of fertility in sub-Saharan Africa. Southern African Journal of Demography 2015;16:87–121.
22. Pathak N, Dhairyawan R, Tariq S. The experience of intimate partner violence among older women: A narrative review. Maturitas 2019;121:63–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2018.12.011.
23. McKee JR, Payne BK. Witnessing Domestic Violence as a Child and Adulthood Emotionality: Do Adults “Feel” the Consequences of Exposure to Partner Abuse Later in the Life Course? Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma 2014;23:318–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2014.881947.
24. Rakovec-Felser Z. Domestic Violence and Abuse in Intimate Relationship from Public Health Perspective. Health Psychol Res 2014;2:1821. https://doi.org/10.4081/hpr.2014.1821.
25. Rapp D, Zoch B, Khan MMH, Pollmann T, Krämer A. Association between gap in spousal education and domestic violence in India and Bangladesh. BMC Public Health 2012;12:467. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-467.
26. Shaikh MA. Prevalence and Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence against Women in Liberia: Findings from 2019–2020 Demographic and Health Survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2022;19:3519. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063519.
27. Taillieu TL, Brownridge DA. Violence against pregnant women: Prevalence, patterns, risk factors, theories, and directions for future research. Aggression and Violent Behavior 2010;15:14–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2009.07.013.
28. Tiruye TY, Harris ML, Chojenta C, Holliday E, Loxton D. Determinants of intimate partner violence against women in Ethiopia: A multi-level analysis. PLOS ONE 2020;15:e0232217. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0232217.
29. World Health Organisation. Understanding and addressing violence against women: Intimate partner violence. 2012.
30. Zambia Statistics Agency, Ministry of Health, University Teaching Hospital Virology Laboratory, ICF. Zambia Demographic and Health Survey 2018. 2019.
Published
2025-10-28
How to Cite
Kasonde, M., Bwalya, B., Masaiti, G. and Mapoma, C. (2025) “Spousal Violence and Spousal Education Difference in Zambia a Cross Sectional Comparative Analysis of Three Demographic Health Survey Cycles”, Journal of Law and Social Sciences, 6(4). doi: https://doi.org/10.53974/unza.jlss.6.4.1590.
Section
Social Sciences