An Ethical Investigation into the Impact of Mophane Worm Depletion on the Environment in the North-Eastern Part of Botswana: A Case Study of Gungwe and Mbalambi Villages
Abstract
Mophane worm is a name given to caterpillars hosted by the Mophane tree. The mophane worm is harvested as food supplement in most of the Southern African countries. For the past few years, there have been some reports indicating that the worm has disappeared in some parts of Botswana. Hence, the aim of this research study has been to investigate from an ethical perspective the impact of mophane worm depletion on the environment. A qualitative approach was used in this study and data was collected from the following target groups of people: villagers, headmen of the stated two villages and the Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism (MEWT) officers both at local and national level. The theoretical framework involved traditional theories (i.e., Value Theory and Utilitarianism) and environmental ethical theories (i.e., Social Ecology, Environmental and Intergenerational Justice). The research instruments employed were individual interview schedules, focus group discussions and observation. A fourfold model of analysis was used focusing on the biological, economical, social and political dimensions. From the findings of the study, it emerged that both natural and anthropogenic factors contributed to mophane worm depletion. The natural factors were drought and predation while the anthropogenic factors included massive usage of the host tree, destructive methods of harvesting and demand for more land for agricultural and residential purposes. It also emerged that mophane worm depletion had both negative and positive impacts on the environment. These included lack of money by the local people to buy their daily needs, lack of relish and poor livelihoods, loss of wildlife that fed on mophane worm and tension between government and local people over the regulation of the resource. Ethical evaluation revealed that the dominant value for the local people was utility value to the almost total lack of explicit awareness of intrinsic and inherent value, and that on utilitarian grounds, the overall evil that depletion of the mophane worm brought about outweighed its overall good effects. With regard to justice issues, the findings revealed that unjust social structures and injustices resulting from the unequal distribution of benefits and burdens as well as from the lack of adequate participation by the local communities in decision-making had a greater negative than positive impact. Finally, recommendations were made emphasising the utmost importance of government intervention to mitigate, if not, stop the depletion of the mophane worm.References
1. Akpalu, W., Muchapodwa, E. and Zikhali, P. (2007), ‘Can the restrictive harvest period policy conserve mopane worms in Southern Africa?’ A bio-economic Modeling approach, Working Paper Number 65.
2. Allotey, J. and S. Mpuchane, (2003), ‘Utilisation of Useful Insects as Food Source’, African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development (AJFAND), 3(2): 1-8.
3. Banjo, A.O. (2006), ‘The Nutritional Value of Edible Insects in South-western Nigeria’, African Journal of Biotechnology, Vol. 5 (3), pp. 298-301. Available at: http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB.
4. Barcalow, E. (1998), Moral Philosophy: Theories and Issues, 2nd Edition. New York: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
5. Bayles, M.D. and Henley, K. (Eds) (1983), Right Conduct: Theories and Applications. New York: Random House.
6. Beauchamp, T.L. (1982), Philosophical Ethics: An Introduction to Moral Philosophy. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
7. Boff, L. (1994), ‘Social Ecology: Poverty and Misery’. In Hallman, D.G. (Ed.), Ecotheology: Voices from South and North. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books.
8. Bookchin, M. (1993), ‘What is Social Ecology?’ In Zimmerman, M.E. (Ed.), Environmental Philosophy. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
9. Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism. (2007), Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan: Revised, Gaborone: Government Print.
10. Botswana Department of Forestry and Range Resources (2009), Government Print, Gaborone.
11. Government Gazette (2006), Statutory Instrument No. 89 of 1 December 2006. Agricultural Resources Conservation Act, Government Print, Gaborone.
12. National Conservation Strategy, National Policy on Natural Resources Conservation and Development (1990), Government Paper No.1 of 1990, Government Print, Gaborone.
13. National Policy on Natural Resource (1990), Government Print, Gaborone.
14. Chidumayo, E.N. and Mbata, K.J. (2002), ‘Shifting Cultivation, Edible Caterpillars and Livelihoods in the Kopa area of northern Zambia’, Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 12: 175-193.
15. Chiras, D.D. (1985), Environmental Science: A Framework for Decision-making. California: The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company Inc.
16. Ditlhogo, M. (1996), ‘The Ecology of Imbrasia Belina (Westwood) in North-Eastern Botswana’. In Gashe, B.A. and Mpuchane, S.F. (Eds), Proceedings of the First Multidisciplinary Symposium on Phane, 18 June 1996, Department of Biological Sciences, UB/KCS, 46-68.
17. Dzimiri, N. (2010), ‘The Rainy Season Reignites the Mophane Worm Craze’, Sunday Standard, Newspaper, January, pp.10-16.
18. FAO (2004), ‘Edible Insects, Important Source of Protein in Central Africa, Nutritious Income Generating, Biological Pest Control’. Available at: http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2004/51409/index.htm (retrieved 20 July 2010).
19. Figueroa, R. and Mills, C. (2003), Environmental Justice. In Jameson, D. (Ed.), A Companion to Environmental Philosophy. London: Blackwell.
20. Frey, R.G. & Wellman, C.H. (2005), A Companion to Applied Ethics. London: Blackwell.
21. Gashe, B.A. & Mpuchane, S.F. (Eds), Proceedings of the First Multidisciplinary Symposium on Phane, 18 June 1996, Department of Biological Sciences, UB/KCS, 104-121.
22. Ghaly, A.E. (2009), ‘The Use of Insects as Food in Zambia’, Online Journal of Biological Sciences, (4): 93-104, ISSN 1608-4217. Nova Scotta: Canada (retrieved 10 June 2010).
23. Goodpaster, K. (1999), ‘On Being Morally Considerable’. In Zimmerman, M.E. (Ed.), Environmental Philosophy. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
24. Hallman, D.G. (1994), Ecotheology: Voices from South and North. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books.
25. Hara, E. (2006), An Investigation of Factors Influencing the Abundance of Edible Caterpillars in Kopa’s Chiefdom, Mpika District, Zambia, Thesis (MSc), University of Zambia.
26. Jameson, D. (2003), A Companion to Environmental Philosophy. London: Blackwell.
27. Keller, D.A. (2010), Environmental Ethics: The Big Questions. Oxford: Blackwell.
28. Letsie, L. (1996), ‘A Gendered Socio-economic Study of Phane’ In: Gashe, B.A. and Mpuchane, S.F. (Eds), Proceedings of the First Multidisciplinary Symposium on Phane, 18 June 1996, Department of Biological Sciences, UB/KCS, 104-121.
29. Macala, J.P. (1996), ‘Colophospermum Mopane: A Fodder Tree for Feeding Livestock’. In Gashe, B.A. and Mpuchane, S.F. (Eds), Proceedings of the First Multidisciplinary Symposium on Phane, 18 June 1996, Department of Biological Sciences, UB/KCS, 104-121.
30. MacKinnon, B. (1998), Ethics: Theory and Contemporary Issues, 2nd Edition: New York: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
31. Marais, E. (1996), ‘Omaungu in Namibia: Imbrasia Belina (Saturniidae: Lepidoptera) as a commercial Resource’. In Gashe, B.A. and Mpuchane, S.F. (Eds), Proceedings of the First Multidisciplinary Symposium on Phane, 18 June 1996, Department of Biological Sciences, UB/KCS, 104-121.
32. Maviya, J. and Gumbo, D. (2005), Incorporating Traditional Natural Resource Management Techniques in Conventional Natural Resources Management Strategies: A Case of Mopane Worms (Amacimbi) Management and Harvesting in the Buliliamamangwe district, Zimbabwe. Available at: http://www.jsdafrica.com/Jsda/Fall2005/ARCMopane%20Worms%20Magmt.pdf (retrieved 10 July 2010).
33. Mbata, K.J. (1995), ‘Traditional uses of Arthropods in Zambia: I. The food insects’, The Food Insects Newsletter, 8: 5-7.
34. Mbata, K.J. (1999), ‘Traditional uses of Arthropods in Zambia: II. Medicinal and Miscellaneous Uses’, The Food Insects Newsletter, 12(2): 1-7.
35. Mbata, K.J., Chidumayo, E.N. and Lwatula, C.M. (2002), ‘Traditional Regulation of Edible Caterpillar Exploitation in the Kopa Area of Mpika District in northern Zambia’, Journal of Insect Conservation, 6: 115-130.
36. Mbata, K.J. and Chidumayo, E.N. (2003), ‘Traditional Values of Caterpillars (Insecta: Lepidoptera) Among the Bisa People of Zambia’, Insect Science and Its Application, 23(4): 341-354.
37. Mogotsi, K. (2009), Enhanced Learning and Delivery of Crop Science (CSP) Botswana College of Agriculture Curriculum, Department of Crop Science and Production, University of Botswana, Unpublished, Gaborone. Available at: http://www.prota.org/uk/About+Prota/ (retrieved 10 July 2010).
38. Moruakgomo, M.B.W. (1996), ‘Commercial Utilisation of Botswana’s Veld Products, The Economics of Phane: The Dimension of Phane Trade’. In Gashe, B.A. and Mpuchane, S.F. (Eds), Proceedings of the First Multidisciplinary Symposium on Phane, 18 June 1996, Department of Biological Sciences, UB/KCS, 104-121.
39. Northcott, M.S. (1996), ‘The Turn to Nature’. In The Environment and Christian Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
40. North-east District Council: A Service Guide. Available at: http://www.mlg.gov.bw/nedc.
41. Ohiokpehai, O., Bulawayo, B.T., Mpotokwane, S., Sekwati, B. and Bertinuson, A. (1996), ‘Expanding the Uses of Phane, a Nutritionally Rich Local Food in Botswana’. In Gashe, B.A. and Mpuchane, S.F. (Eds), Proceedings of the First Multidisciplinary Symposium on Phane, 18 June 1996, Department of Biological Sciences, UB/KCS, 104-121.
42. Panneerselvan, A. and Ramakrishnan, M. (2005), Environmental Science Education. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited.
43. Roodt, V. (1992), Trees of the Okavango Delta and Moremi Game Reserve. Pretoria: Shell Publishers.
44. Roux, K. (2001), Environmental Education Processes Active Learning in Schools. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press.
45. Sagoff, M. (1993), Population, Nature, and the Environment, Report from the Institute for Philosophy and Public Policy, Vol. 13, No. 4, p.10.
46. Sekhwela, M.B.M. (2007), Towards an Integrated Sustainable Harvesting, Management and Conservation of Phane and Mophane Woodlands, University of Botswana.
47. Setshogo, P. and Venter, F. (2003), Trees in Botswana: Names and Distribution, In Southern African Botanical Diversity Network Report No. 18, Pretoria, South Africa.
48. Stamp, E.N. and Casey, M.T. (1993), Caterpillars: Ecological and Evolutionary Constraints on Foraging. New York, London: Chapman and Hall.
49. Styles, C.V. (1996), ‘The Biological Ecology of Imbrasia Belina (Saturniinae, Saturniidae) with Reference to its Behaviour, Physiology, Population Dynamics, Impact within Mopane Veld and Utilisation within South Africa’. In Gashe, B.A. and Mpuchane, S.F. (Eds), Proceedings of the First Multidisciplinary Symposium on Phane, 18 June 1996, Department of Biological Sciences, UB/KCS, 104-121.
50. Teferra, G., Allotey, J., Mpuchane, S.F., Siame, A.B. and Gashe, B.A. (1996), ‘The Nutrient Composition of the Leaves of Colophospermum Mopane and Sclerocarya Birrea; and their Quality as Food for Mophane Worms’. In Gashe B.A. and S.F. Mpuchane (Eds), Proceedings of the First Multidisciplinary Symposium on Phane, 18 June 1996, Department of Biological Sciences, UB/KCS, 104-121.
51. Toms, R.B., Thagwana, M.P., and Lothole, K.D. (2003), ‘The Mopane Worm- Indigenous Knowledge in the Classroom: Science in Africa’, Africa’s Online Science Magazine (retrieved 13 January 2010): Available at: http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2003/june/mopane.htm.
52. Toms, R.B. & Thagwana, M. (2003a), ‘Eat Your Bugs’, Science in Africa: Africa’s First Online Science Magazine (retrieved 23 January 2010). Available at: http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2003/october/stinkbug.htm.
53. Toms, R.B. (2003b), ‘On the trail of missing mopane worm’, First Online Science Magazine (retrieved 23 January 2010). Available at: http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2005/january/htm.
54. Toms, R.B. and Nonaka, K. (2005), ‘Harvesting of Insects in South Africa and Japan- Indigenous Knowledge in the Classroom: Science in Africa’, Africa’s Online Science Magazine (retrieved 13 January 2010). Available at: http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2005/August/mopane.htm.
55. Vantomme, P., Gohler, D. and N’Deckere-Ziangba, F. (2004), ‘Contribution of Forest Insects to Food Security and Forest Conservation: The Example of Caterpillars in Central Africa’, ODI Wildlife Policy Briefing No. 3. Available at: http://www.odi-bushmeat.org/wildlifepolicybriefs.htm (retrieved 13 January 2010).
56. Warren, K. (1993), ‘Introduction to [Ecofeminism]’. In Zimmerman, M.E. (Ed.), Environmental Philosophy. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
57. Wenz, P. (2001), Environmental Ethics Today. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
58. Wolf, C. (2005), ‘Intergenerational Justice’. In Frey, R.G. and Wellman, C.H., A Companion to Applied Ethics. London: Blackwell.
59. Wootton, A. (1984), Insects of the World. United Kingdom: Blandford Press.
60. Zimmerman, M.E. (Ed.) (1993), Environmental Philosophy. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
2. Allotey, J. and S. Mpuchane, (2003), ‘Utilisation of Useful Insects as Food Source’, African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development (AJFAND), 3(2): 1-8.
3. Banjo, A.O. (2006), ‘The Nutritional Value of Edible Insects in South-western Nigeria’, African Journal of Biotechnology, Vol. 5 (3), pp. 298-301. Available at: http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB.
4. Barcalow, E. (1998), Moral Philosophy: Theories and Issues, 2nd Edition. New York: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
5. Bayles, M.D. and Henley, K. (Eds) (1983), Right Conduct: Theories and Applications. New York: Random House.
6. Beauchamp, T.L. (1982), Philosophical Ethics: An Introduction to Moral Philosophy. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
7. Boff, L. (1994), ‘Social Ecology: Poverty and Misery’. In Hallman, D.G. (Ed.), Ecotheology: Voices from South and North. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books.
8. Bookchin, M. (1993), ‘What is Social Ecology?’ In Zimmerman, M.E. (Ed.), Environmental Philosophy. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
9. Ministry of Environment, Wildlife and Tourism. (2007), Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan: Revised, Gaborone: Government Print.
10. Botswana Department of Forestry and Range Resources (2009), Government Print, Gaborone.
11. Government Gazette (2006), Statutory Instrument No. 89 of 1 December 2006. Agricultural Resources Conservation Act, Government Print, Gaborone.
12. National Conservation Strategy, National Policy on Natural Resources Conservation and Development (1990), Government Paper No.1 of 1990, Government Print, Gaborone.
13. National Policy on Natural Resource (1990), Government Print, Gaborone.
14. Chidumayo, E.N. and Mbata, K.J. (2002), ‘Shifting Cultivation, Edible Caterpillars and Livelihoods in the Kopa area of northern Zambia’, Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 12: 175-193.
15. Chiras, D.D. (1985), Environmental Science: A Framework for Decision-making. California: The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company Inc.
16. Ditlhogo, M. (1996), ‘The Ecology of Imbrasia Belina (Westwood) in North-Eastern Botswana’. In Gashe, B.A. and Mpuchane, S.F. (Eds), Proceedings of the First Multidisciplinary Symposium on Phane, 18 June 1996, Department of Biological Sciences, UB/KCS, 46-68.
17. Dzimiri, N. (2010), ‘The Rainy Season Reignites the Mophane Worm Craze’, Sunday Standard, Newspaper, January, pp.10-16.
18. FAO (2004), ‘Edible Insects, Important Source of Protein in Central Africa, Nutritious Income Generating, Biological Pest Control’. Available at: http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2004/51409/index.htm (retrieved 20 July 2010).
19. Figueroa, R. and Mills, C. (2003), Environmental Justice. In Jameson, D. (Ed.), A Companion to Environmental Philosophy. London: Blackwell.
20. Frey, R.G. & Wellman, C.H. (2005), A Companion to Applied Ethics. London: Blackwell.
21. Gashe, B.A. & Mpuchane, S.F. (Eds), Proceedings of the First Multidisciplinary Symposium on Phane, 18 June 1996, Department of Biological Sciences, UB/KCS, 104-121.
22. Ghaly, A.E. (2009), ‘The Use of Insects as Food in Zambia’, Online Journal of Biological Sciences, (4): 93-104, ISSN 1608-4217. Nova Scotta: Canada (retrieved 10 June 2010).
23. Goodpaster, K. (1999), ‘On Being Morally Considerable’. In Zimmerman, M.E. (Ed.), Environmental Philosophy. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
24. Hallman, D.G. (1994), Ecotheology: Voices from South and North. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books.
25. Hara, E. (2006), An Investigation of Factors Influencing the Abundance of Edible Caterpillars in Kopa’s Chiefdom, Mpika District, Zambia, Thesis (MSc), University of Zambia.
26. Jameson, D. (2003), A Companion to Environmental Philosophy. London: Blackwell.
27. Keller, D.A. (2010), Environmental Ethics: The Big Questions. Oxford: Blackwell.
28. Letsie, L. (1996), ‘A Gendered Socio-economic Study of Phane’ In: Gashe, B.A. and Mpuchane, S.F. (Eds), Proceedings of the First Multidisciplinary Symposium on Phane, 18 June 1996, Department of Biological Sciences, UB/KCS, 104-121.
29. Macala, J.P. (1996), ‘Colophospermum Mopane: A Fodder Tree for Feeding Livestock’. In Gashe, B.A. and Mpuchane, S.F. (Eds), Proceedings of the First Multidisciplinary Symposium on Phane, 18 June 1996, Department of Biological Sciences, UB/KCS, 104-121.
30. MacKinnon, B. (1998), Ethics: Theory and Contemporary Issues, 2nd Edition: New York: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
31. Marais, E. (1996), ‘Omaungu in Namibia: Imbrasia Belina (Saturniidae: Lepidoptera) as a commercial Resource’. In Gashe, B.A. and Mpuchane, S.F. (Eds), Proceedings of the First Multidisciplinary Symposium on Phane, 18 June 1996, Department of Biological Sciences, UB/KCS, 104-121.
32. Maviya, J. and Gumbo, D. (2005), Incorporating Traditional Natural Resource Management Techniques in Conventional Natural Resources Management Strategies: A Case of Mopane Worms (Amacimbi) Management and Harvesting in the Buliliamamangwe district, Zimbabwe. Available at: http://www.jsdafrica.com/Jsda/Fall2005/ARCMopane%20Worms%20Magmt.pdf (retrieved 10 July 2010).
33. Mbata, K.J. (1995), ‘Traditional uses of Arthropods in Zambia: I. The food insects’, The Food Insects Newsletter, 8: 5-7.
34. Mbata, K.J. (1999), ‘Traditional uses of Arthropods in Zambia: II. Medicinal and Miscellaneous Uses’, The Food Insects Newsletter, 12(2): 1-7.
35. Mbata, K.J., Chidumayo, E.N. and Lwatula, C.M. (2002), ‘Traditional Regulation of Edible Caterpillar Exploitation in the Kopa Area of Mpika District in northern Zambia’, Journal of Insect Conservation, 6: 115-130.
36. Mbata, K.J. and Chidumayo, E.N. (2003), ‘Traditional Values of Caterpillars (Insecta: Lepidoptera) Among the Bisa People of Zambia’, Insect Science and Its Application, 23(4): 341-354.
37. Mogotsi, K. (2009), Enhanced Learning and Delivery of Crop Science (CSP) Botswana College of Agriculture Curriculum, Department of Crop Science and Production, University of Botswana, Unpublished, Gaborone. Available at: http://www.prota.org/uk/About+Prota/ (retrieved 10 July 2010).
38. Moruakgomo, M.B.W. (1996), ‘Commercial Utilisation of Botswana’s Veld Products, The Economics of Phane: The Dimension of Phane Trade’. In Gashe, B.A. and Mpuchane, S.F. (Eds), Proceedings of the First Multidisciplinary Symposium on Phane, 18 June 1996, Department of Biological Sciences, UB/KCS, 104-121.
39. Northcott, M.S. (1996), ‘The Turn to Nature’. In The Environment and Christian Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
40. North-east District Council: A Service Guide. Available at: http://www.mlg.gov.bw/nedc.
41. Ohiokpehai, O., Bulawayo, B.T., Mpotokwane, S., Sekwati, B. and Bertinuson, A. (1996), ‘Expanding the Uses of Phane, a Nutritionally Rich Local Food in Botswana’. In Gashe, B.A. and Mpuchane, S.F. (Eds), Proceedings of the First Multidisciplinary Symposium on Phane, 18 June 1996, Department of Biological Sciences, UB/KCS, 104-121.
42. Panneerselvan, A. and Ramakrishnan, M. (2005), Environmental Science Education. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited.
43. Roodt, V. (1992), Trees of the Okavango Delta and Moremi Game Reserve. Pretoria: Shell Publishers.
44. Roux, K. (2001), Environmental Education Processes Active Learning in Schools. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press.
45. Sagoff, M. (1993), Population, Nature, and the Environment, Report from the Institute for Philosophy and Public Policy, Vol. 13, No. 4, p.10.
46. Sekhwela, M.B.M. (2007), Towards an Integrated Sustainable Harvesting, Management and Conservation of Phane and Mophane Woodlands, University of Botswana.
47. Setshogo, P. and Venter, F. (2003), Trees in Botswana: Names and Distribution, In Southern African Botanical Diversity Network Report No. 18, Pretoria, South Africa.
48. Stamp, E.N. and Casey, M.T. (1993), Caterpillars: Ecological and Evolutionary Constraints on Foraging. New York, London: Chapman and Hall.
49. Styles, C.V. (1996), ‘The Biological Ecology of Imbrasia Belina (Saturniinae, Saturniidae) with Reference to its Behaviour, Physiology, Population Dynamics, Impact within Mopane Veld and Utilisation within South Africa’. In Gashe, B.A. and Mpuchane, S.F. (Eds), Proceedings of the First Multidisciplinary Symposium on Phane, 18 June 1996, Department of Biological Sciences, UB/KCS, 104-121.
50. Teferra, G., Allotey, J., Mpuchane, S.F., Siame, A.B. and Gashe, B.A. (1996), ‘The Nutrient Composition of the Leaves of Colophospermum Mopane and Sclerocarya Birrea; and their Quality as Food for Mophane Worms’. In Gashe B.A. and S.F. Mpuchane (Eds), Proceedings of the First Multidisciplinary Symposium on Phane, 18 June 1996, Department of Biological Sciences, UB/KCS, 104-121.
51. Toms, R.B., Thagwana, M.P., and Lothole, K.D. (2003), ‘The Mopane Worm- Indigenous Knowledge in the Classroom: Science in Africa’, Africa’s Online Science Magazine (retrieved 13 January 2010): Available at: http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2003/june/mopane.htm.
52. Toms, R.B. & Thagwana, M. (2003a), ‘Eat Your Bugs’, Science in Africa: Africa’s First Online Science Magazine (retrieved 23 January 2010). Available at: http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2003/october/stinkbug.htm.
53. Toms, R.B. (2003b), ‘On the trail of missing mopane worm’, First Online Science Magazine (retrieved 23 January 2010). Available at: http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2005/january/htm.
54. Toms, R.B. and Nonaka, K. (2005), ‘Harvesting of Insects in South Africa and Japan- Indigenous Knowledge in the Classroom: Science in Africa’, Africa’s Online Science Magazine (retrieved 13 January 2010). Available at: http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2005/August/mopane.htm.
55. Vantomme, P., Gohler, D. and N’Deckere-Ziangba, F. (2004), ‘Contribution of Forest Insects to Food Security and Forest Conservation: The Example of Caterpillars in Central Africa’, ODI Wildlife Policy Briefing No. 3. Available at: http://www.odi-bushmeat.org/wildlifepolicybriefs.htm (retrieved 13 January 2010).
56. Warren, K. (1993), ‘Introduction to [Ecofeminism]’. In Zimmerman, M.E. (Ed.), Environmental Philosophy. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
57. Wenz, P. (2001), Environmental Ethics Today. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
58. Wolf, C. (2005), ‘Intergenerational Justice’. In Frey, R.G. and Wellman, C.H., A Companion to Applied Ethics. London: Blackwell.
59. Wootton, A. (1984), Insects of the World. United Kingdom: Blandford Press.
60. Zimmerman, M.E. (Ed.) (1993), Environmental Philosophy. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Published
2012-03-31
How to Cite
Selaledi, F. (2012) “An Ethical Investigation into the Impact of Mophane Worm Depletion on the Environment in the North-Eastern Part of Botswana: A Case Study of Gungwe and Mbalambi Villages”, Journal of Law and Social Sciences, 1(1), pp. 105-127. doi: https://doi.org/10.53974/unza.jlss.1.1.372.
Section
Humanities