An Exploratory Study of Language Use and Preferences among Nursing Lecturers and Students at Mzuzu University in Malawi
Keywords:
Code-switching, Markedness Model, Communication Accommodation Theory, Multilingualism, Language Attitude
Abstract
This article reports on the insights gained from multilingual nursing lecturers and students at Mzuzu University in Malawi on the languages they use and prefer in a classroom setting. Research (Setati, Chitera and Essien, 2009; Chowdhury 2012) has found that both lecturers and students in multilingual and multicultural settings favour code-switching practices in the classroom setting. Code-switching is, therefore, an important phenomenon, which researchers should continue exploring because of the several distinctive attributes associated with it. The study adheres to qualitative and quantitative designs through the use of a questionnaire and follow-up interviews as methods of data collection. The results reveal that both lecturers and students favour code-switching from English to Chichewa during lectures. From both lecturers’ and students’ perspectives, code-switching helps to translate and clarify difficult concepts. It also helps to prepare students for the nursing profession. The study has some practical and pedagogical implications. On the one hand, it contributes some meaningful insights for language planners and policy-makers; on the other hand, the study sheds important light on the need to include the workplace dimension during language in education and language planning conversations. This study is also important because it addresses the issue of how code-switching might effectively be exploited as a communicative and pedagogical resource in instruction.References
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2. Adler, J. (2001). Teaching Mathematics in Multilingual Classrooms. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Press.
3. Ahmad, B.A., and Jusoff, K. (2009). ‘Teachers’ Code-switching in Classroom Instructions for Low English Proficient Learners,’ English Language Teaching Journal, 2(2), 49-55. Available at: www.ccsenet.org/journal.html.
4. Alenezi, A. (2010). ‘Students’ Language Towards Using Code-switching as a Medium of Instruction in the College of Health Sciences: An Exploratory Study,’ ARECLS, 7, 1-22.
5. Al-Nofaie, H. (2010). ‘The Attitudes of Teachers and Students Towards Using Arabic in EFL Classrooms in Saudi Public Schools: A Case Study,’ Novitas-ROYAL, 4(1), 64-95.
6. Auerbach, E. (1993). ‘Re-examining English Only in the ESL Classroom,’ TESOL Quarterly, 27(1), 9-32.
7. Arthur, J. (1996). ‘Code-switching and Collusion: Classroom Interaction in Botswana Primary Schools,’ Linguistics and Education, 8, 17-33.
8. Baker, C. (2011). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (5th ed.). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
9. Banda, F. (2000). ‘The Dilemma of the Mother Tongue: Prospects for Bilingual Education in South Africa,’ Language, Culture and Curriculum, 13(1), 51-66. DOI: 10.1080/07908310008666589.
10. Battistella, E.L. (1990). Markedness: The Evaluative Superstructure of Language. Albany: State University of New York Press.
11. Boztepe, E. (2003). ‘Issues in Code-switching: Competing Theories and Models,’ Working Papers in TESOL and Applied Linguistics, 3(2), 1-27.
12. Brown, K. (2006). Encyclopaedia of Language and Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier.
13. Chambers, F. (1991). ‘Promoting Use of the Target Language in the Classroom,’ Language Learning Journal, 4, 27-31.
14. Chowdhury, N. (2012). ‘Classroom Code-switching of English Language Teachers at Tertiary Level: A Bangladeshi Perspective,’ Stamford Journal of English, 7, 40-61.
15. Cook, V. (2001). ‘Using the First Language in the Classroom,’ Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(3), 402-415.
16. Cook, V. (2002). Portraits of the L2 User. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
17. De Swaan, A. (2001). Words of the World. Cambridge: Polity Press.
18. Dykhanova, A. (2015). ‘Functions of Code-switching and Attitudes Toward Them: A Case Study,’ Master’s Thesis, Eastern Mediterranean University, Gazimağusa, North Cyprus.
19. Eldridge, J. (1996). ‘Code-switching in a Turkish Secondary School,’ ELT Journal, 50(4), 303-311.
20. Ferguson, G. (2003). ‘Classroom Code-switching in Post-colonial Contexts: Functions, Attitudes and Policies,’ AILA Review Africa and Applied Linguistics, 14, 38-51.
21. Giles, H., and Coupland, N. (1991). Contexts on Accommodation. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
22. Grice, H.P. (1975). ‘Logic and Conversation,’ in Cole, P., and Morgan, J. (eds.), Syntax and Semantics, 3, 41-58. New York: Academic Press.
23. Gudykunst, W.B. (1995). ‘Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory: Current Status,’ in Wiseman, R. (ed.), Intercultural Communication Theory, 8-58. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
24. Hait, S. (2014). ‘The Functions of Code-switching used by Secondary Students in English Classes,’ Master’s Thesis, Middle East University, Amman, Jordan.
25. Halliwell, S., and Jones, B. (1991). On Target Teaching in the Target Language. London: Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research.
26. Hymes, D. (1962). ‘The Ethnography of Speaking,’ in Gladwin, T., and Sturtevant, W.C. (eds.), Anthropology and Human Behavior, 13-53. Washington, DC: Anthropology Society of Washington.
27. Jingxia, L. (2010). ‘Teachers’ Code-switching to the L1 in EFL Classroom,’ The Open Applied Linguistics Journal, 3, 10-23.
28. Kamtukule, V. (2019). ‘Report on Rationale for the Current Language Policy,’ Malawi: Malawi Scotland Partnership.
29. Kayambazinthu, E. (1998). ‘The Language Planning Situation in Malawi,’ Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 19(5), 369-439.
30. Klapwijk, N., and Van der Walt, C. (2016). ‘English-plus Multilingualism as the New Linguistic Capital? Implications of University Students’ Attitudes Towards Languages of Instruction in a Multilingual Environment,’ Journal of Language, Identity and Education, 15(2), 67-82. DOI: 10.1080/15348458.2015.1137475.
31. Krashen, S., and Terrell, T. (1983). The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom. San Francisco: The Alemany Press.
32. Lee, C., Yan, H., and Tsai, C. (2006). ‘Application of Code-switching in Medical Communication: Institutional Context of Nursing Practitioners in Taiwan,’ English Teaching and Culture, 2, 13-28.
33. Lewis, M.P., Simons, G.F., and Fennig, C.D. (eds.) (2015). Ethnologue: Languages of the World (18th ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Retrieved August 4, 2019, from http://www.ethnologue.com/.
34. Lucas, T., and Katz, A. (1994). ‘Reframing the Debate: The Roles of Native Languages in English-Only Programs for Language Minority Students,’ TESOL Quarterly, 28, 537-561.
35. Macdonald, C. (1993). Using the Target Language. Cheltenham: Mary Glasgow Publications.
36. Merritt, M., Cleghorn, A., Abagi, J.O., and Bunyi, G. (1992). ‘Socialising Multilingualism; Determinants of Code-switching in Kenyan Primary Classrooms,’ Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 13(1-2), 103-121.
37. Moghadam, S., Samad, A., and Shahraki, E. (2012). ‘Code-switching as a Medium of Instruction in an EFL Classroom,’ Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 11(2), 2219-2225.
38. Myers-Scotton, C. (1993). Social Motivations for Code-switching: Evidence from Africa. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
39. Myers-Scotton, C. (1998). ‘A Theoretical Introduction to the Markedness Model,’ in Myers-Scotton, C. (ed.), Codes and Consequences: Choosing Linguistic Varieties. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
40. Myers-Scotton, C. (2006). Multiple Voices. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
41. National Statistical Office (2008). ‘Education and Literacy Report,’ Retrieved August 14, 2019, from http://www.nsomalawi.mw/images/stories/data_on_line/demography/census_2008/Main%20Report/ThematicReports/Education%20and%20Literacy.pdf.
42. Ndebele, H. (2012). ‘A Socio-cultural Approach to Code-switching and Code-mixing Among Speakers of IsiZulu in KwaZulu-Natal: A Contribution to Spoken Language Corpora,’ Master’s Thesis, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.
43. Probyn, M. (2015). ‘Pedagogical Translanguaging: Bridging Discourses in South African Science Classrooms,’ Language and Education, 29(3), 218–234. doi:10.1080/09500782.2014.994525.
44. Rahimi, A., and Jafari, Z. (2011). ‘Iranian Students’ Attitudes Toward the Facilitative and Debilitative Role of Code-switching: Types and Moments of Code-switching at EFL Classroom,’ The Buckingham Journal of Language and Linguistics, 4, 14-28.
45. Reilly, C. (2016). ‘Language Use and Language Attitudes in Malawian Universities,’ MPhil Thesis, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
46. Sachdev, I., and Giles, H. (2004). ‘Bilingual Speech Accommodation,’ in Bhatia, T.K. (ed.), Handbook of Bilingualism, Blackwell, Oxford, UK.
47. Sert, O. (2005). ‘The Functions of Code-switching in ELT Class rooms,’ The Internet TESL Journal, 11(8), 1-6.
48. Setati, M., Chitera, N., and Essien, A. (2009). ‘Research on Multilingualism in Mathematics Education in South Africa: 2000-2007,’ African Journal for Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 13, 65-80.
49. Simango, S. (2006). ‘East Africa/Ostafrika,’ in Ulrich, A., et al. (eds.), Sociolinguistics/Soziolinguistik, 1964-1971. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
50. Skiba, R. (1997). ‘Code-switching as a Countenance of Language Interference,’ The Internet TESOL Journal, 3, 10.
51. Soliz, J., and Giles, H. (2014). ‘Relational and Identity Processes in Communication: A Contextual and Meta-Analytical Review of Communication Accommodation Theory,’ Annals of the International Communication Association, 38(1), 107-144. doi: 10.1080/23808985.2014.11679160.
52. Thakerar, J.N., Giles, H., and Cheshire, J. (1982). ‘Psychological and Linguistic Parameters of Speech Accommodation Theory,’ in Fraser, C., and Scherer, K.R. (eds.), Advances in the Social Psychology of Language, 205-255. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
53. Tien, C. (2009). ‘Conflict and Accommodation in Classroom Codeswitching in Taiwan,’ International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 12(2), 173-192. DOI: 10.1080/13670050802153160.
54. Turner, N., and Wildsmith-Cromarty, R. (2014). ‘Challenges to the Implementation of Bilingual/Multilingual Language Policies at Tertiary Institutions in South Africa (1995–2012),’ Language Matters, 45(3), 295-312. doi: 10.1080/10228195.2014.961525.
55. Uys, D. (2010). ‘The Functions of Teachers’ Code-switching in Multilingual and Multicultural High School Classrooms in the Siyanda District of the Northern Cape Province,’ Master’s Thesis, Stellenbosch University, South Africa.
56. Wildsmith-Cromarty, R., and Turner, N. (2018). ‘Bilingual Instruction at Tertiary Level in South Africa: What are the Challenges?,’ Current Issues in Language Planning, 19(4), 416-433. doi: 10.1080/14664208.2018.1468959.
57. Woods, N.I. (2018). ‘Departing from Doctor-speak: A Perspective on Code-switching in the Medical Setting,’ Journal of General Internal Medicine, 34(3), 464–466. doi: 10.1007/s11606-018-4768-0.
58. Younas, M., Arshad, S., Akram, K., Faisal, M., Akhtar, M., and Sarfraz, K. (2014). ‘Code-switching and Code-mixing: A Case of EFL Teachers Affecting L2 Learners’ Learning,’ Language in India, 14, 516-522.
2. Adler, J. (2001). Teaching Mathematics in Multilingual Classrooms. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Press.
3. Ahmad, B.A., and Jusoff, K. (2009). ‘Teachers’ Code-switching in Classroom Instructions for Low English Proficient Learners,’ English Language Teaching Journal, 2(2), 49-55. Available at: www.ccsenet.org/journal.html.
4. Alenezi, A. (2010). ‘Students’ Language Towards Using Code-switching as a Medium of Instruction in the College of Health Sciences: An Exploratory Study,’ ARECLS, 7, 1-22.
5. Al-Nofaie, H. (2010). ‘The Attitudes of Teachers and Students Towards Using Arabic in EFL Classrooms in Saudi Public Schools: A Case Study,’ Novitas-ROYAL, 4(1), 64-95.
6. Auerbach, E. (1993). ‘Re-examining English Only in the ESL Classroom,’ TESOL Quarterly, 27(1), 9-32.
7. Arthur, J. (1996). ‘Code-switching and Collusion: Classroom Interaction in Botswana Primary Schools,’ Linguistics and Education, 8, 17-33.
8. Baker, C. (2011). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (5th ed.). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
9. Banda, F. (2000). ‘The Dilemma of the Mother Tongue: Prospects for Bilingual Education in South Africa,’ Language, Culture and Curriculum, 13(1), 51-66. DOI: 10.1080/07908310008666589.
10. Battistella, E.L. (1990). Markedness: The Evaluative Superstructure of Language. Albany: State University of New York Press.
11. Boztepe, E. (2003). ‘Issues in Code-switching: Competing Theories and Models,’ Working Papers in TESOL and Applied Linguistics, 3(2), 1-27.
12. Brown, K. (2006). Encyclopaedia of Language and Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier.
13. Chambers, F. (1991). ‘Promoting Use of the Target Language in the Classroom,’ Language Learning Journal, 4, 27-31.
14. Chowdhury, N. (2012). ‘Classroom Code-switching of English Language Teachers at Tertiary Level: A Bangladeshi Perspective,’ Stamford Journal of English, 7, 40-61.
15. Cook, V. (2001). ‘Using the First Language in the Classroom,’ Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(3), 402-415.
16. Cook, V. (2002). Portraits of the L2 User. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
17. De Swaan, A. (2001). Words of the World. Cambridge: Polity Press.
18. Dykhanova, A. (2015). ‘Functions of Code-switching and Attitudes Toward Them: A Case Study,’ Master’s Thesis, Eastern Mediterranean University, Gazimağusa, North Cyprus.
19. Eldridge, J. (1996). ‘Code-switching in a Turkish Secondary School,’ ELT Journal, 50(4), 303-311.
20. Ferguson, G. (2003). ‘Classroom Code-switching in Post-colonial Contexts: Functions, Attitudes and Policies,’ AILA Review Africa and Applied Linguistics, 14, 38-51.
21. Giles, H., and Coupland, N. (1991). Contexts on Accommodation. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
22. Grice, H.P. (1975). ‘Logic and Conversation,’ in Cole, P., and Morgan, J. (eds.), Syntax and Semantics, 3, 41-58. New York: Academic Press.
23. Gudykunst, W.B. (1995). ‘Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory: Current Status,’ in Wiseman, R. (ed.), Intercultural Communication Theory, 8-58. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
24. Hait, S. (2014). ‘The Functions of Code-switching used by Secondary Students in English Classes,’ Master’s Thesis, Middle East University, Amman, Jordan.
25. Halliwell, S., and Jones, B. (1991). On Target Teaching in the Target Language. London: Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research.
26. Hymes, D. (1962). ‘The Ethnography of Speaking,’ in Gladwin, T., and Sturtevant, W.C. (eds.), Anthropology and Human Behavior, 13-53. Washington, DC: Anthropology Society of Washington.
27. Jingxia, L. (2010). ‘Teachers’ Code-switching to the L1 in EFL Classroom,’ The Open Applied Linguistics Journal, 3, 10-23.
28. Kamtukule, V. (2019). ‘Report on Rationale for the Current Language Policy,’ Malawi: Malawi Scotland Partnership.
29. Kayambazinthu, E. (1998). ‘The Language Planning Situation in Malawi,’ Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 19(5), 369-439.
30. Klapwijk, N., and Van der Walt, C. (2016). ‘English-plus Multilingualism as the New Linguistic Capital? Implications of University Students’ Attitudes Towards Languages of Instruction in a Multilingual Environment,’ Journal of Language, Identity and Education, 15(2), 67-82. DOI: 10.1080/15348458.2015.1137475.
31. Krashen, S., and Terrell, T. (1983). The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom. San Francisco: The Alemany Press.
32. Lee, C., Yan, H., and Tsai, C. (2006). ‘Application of Code-switching in Medical Communication: Institutional Context of Nursing Practitioners in Taiwan,’ English Teaching and Culture, 2, 13-28.
33. Lewis, M.P., Simons, G.F., and Fennig, C.D. (eds.) (2015). Ethnologue: Languages of the World (18th ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Retrieved August 4, 2019, from http://www.ethnologue.com/.
34. Lucas, T., and Katz, A. (1994). ‘Reframing the Debate: The Roles of Native Languages in English-Only Programs for Language Minority Students,’ TESOL Quarterly, 28, 537-561.
35. Macdonald, C. (1993). Using the Target Language. Cheltenham: Mary Glasgow Publications.
36. Merritt, M., Cleghorn, A., Abagi, J.O., and Bunyi, G. (1992). ‘Socialising Multilingualism; Determinants of Code-switching in Kenyan Primary Classrooms,’ Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 13(1-2), 103-121.
37. Moghadam, S., Samad, A., and Shahraki, E. (2012). ‘Code-switching as a Medium of Instruction in an EFL Classroom,’ Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 11(2), 2219-2225.
38. Myers-Scotton, C. (1993). Social Motivations for Code-switching: Evidence from Africa. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
39. Myers-Scotton, C. (1998). ‘A Theoretical Introduction to the Markedness Model,’ in Myers-Scotton, C. (ed.), Codes and Consequences: Choosing Linguistic Varieties. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
40. Myers-Scotton, C. (2006). Multiple Voices. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
41. National Statistical Office (2008). ‘Education and Literacy Report,’ Retrieved August 14, 2019, from http://www.nsomalawi.mw/images/stories/data_on_line/demography/census_2008/Main%20Report/ThematicReports/Education%20and%20Literacy.pdf.
42. Ndebele, H. (2012). ‘A Socio-cultural Approach to Code-switching and Code-mixing Among Speakers of IsiZulu in KwaZulu-Natal: A Contribution to Spoken Language Corpora,’ Master’s Thesis, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.
43. Probyn, M. (2015). ‘Pedagogical Translanguaging: Bridging Discourses in South African Science Classrooms,’ Language and Education, 29(3), 218–234. doi:10.1080/09500782.2014.994525.
44. Rahimi, A., and Jafari, Z. (2011). ‘Iranian Students’ Attitudes Toward the Facilitative and Debilitative Role of Code-switching: Types and Moments of Code-switching at EFL Classroom,’ The Buckingham Journal of Language and Linguistics, 4, 14-28.
45. Reilly, C. (2016). ‘Language Use and Language Attitudes in Malawian Universities,’ MPhil Thesis, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
46. Sachdev, I., and Giles, H. (2004). ‘Bilingual Speech Accommodation,’ in Bhatia, T.K. (ed.), Handbook of Bilingualism, Blackwell, Oxford, UK.
47. Sert, O. (2005). ‘The Functions of Code-switching in ELT Class rooms,’ The Internet TESL Journal, 11(8), 1-6.
48. Setati, M., Chitera, N., and Essien, A. (2009). ‘Research on Multilingualism in Mathematics Education in South Africa: 2000-2007,’ African Journal for Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 13, 65-80.
49. Simango, S. (2006). ‘East Africa/Ostafrika,’ in Ulrich, A., et al. (eds.), Sociolinguistics/Soziolinguistik, 1964-1971. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
50. Skiba, R. (1997). ‘Code-switching as a Countenance of Language Interference,’ The Internet TESOL Journal, 3, 10.
51. Soliz, J., and Giles, H. (2014). ‘Relational and Identity Processes in Communication: A Contextual and Meta-Analytical Review of Communication Accommodation Theory,’ Annals of the International Communication Association, 38(1), 107-144. doi: 10.1080/23808985.2014.11679160.
52. Thakerar, J.N., Giles, H., and Cheshire, J. (1982). ‘Psychological and Linguistic Parameters of Speech Accommodation Theory,’ in Fraser, C., and Scherer, K.R. (eds.), Advances in the Social Psychology of Language, 205-255. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
53. Tien, C. (2009). ‘Conflict and Accommodation in Classroom Codeswitching in Taiwan,’ International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 12(2), 173-192. DOI: 10.1080/13670050802153160.
54. Turner, N., and Wildsmith-Cromarty, R. (2014). ‘Challenges to the Implementation of Bilingual/Multilingual Language Policies at Tertiary Institutions in South Africa (1995–2012),’ Language Matters, 45(3), 295-312. doi: 10.1080/10228195.2014.961525.
55. Uys, D. (2010). ‘The Functions of Teachers’ Code-switching in Multilingual and Multicultural High School Classrooms in the Siyanda District of the Northern Cape Province,’ Master’s Thesis, Stellenbosch University, South Africa.
56. Wildsmith-Cromarty, R., and Turner, N. (2018). ‘Bilingual Instruction at Tertiary Level in South Africa: What are the Challenges?,’ Current Issues in Language Planning, 19(4), 416-433. doi: 10.1080/14664208.2018.1468959.
57. Woods, N.I. (2018). ‘Departing from Doctor-speak: A Perspective on Code-switching in the Medical Setting,’ Journal of General Internal Medicine, 34(3), 464–466. doi: 10.1007/s11606-018-4768-0.
58. Younas, M., Arshad, S., Akram, K., Faisal, M., Akhtar, M., and Sarfraz, K. (2014). ‘Code-switching and Code-mixing: A Case of EFL Teachers Affecting L2 Learners’ Learning,’ Language in India, 14, 516-522.
Published
2020-09-30
How to Cite
Hara, A. (2020) “An Exploratory Study of Language Use and Preferences among Nursing Lecturers and Students at Mzuzu University in Malawi”, Journal of Law and Social Sciences, 3(1), pp. 178-198. doi: https://doi.org/10.53974/unza.jlss.3.1.454.
Section
Humanities