Post-Project Sustainability in Natural Resources Conservation: Evidence From The Mumbwa Game Management Area, Zambia.
Abstract
Post-project sustainability remains a persistent challenge for natural resources conservation and livelihood improvement initiatives, particularly in donor-funded contexts. While substantial resources are invested in the design and implementation of such projects, far less attention is given to understanding whether project benefits endure beyond the funding period. This study examined the post-project sustainability of natural resources conservation projects in the Mumbwa Game Management Area (GMA), Zambia. The study was guided by three objectives: to assess the extent to which post-project sustainability is embedded in project design, to capture expert opinions on factors influencing post-project sustainability, and to examine community perspectives on the sustainability of project activities and livelihood outcomes. A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining household surveys administered to 140 project participants and non-participants, focus group discussions across three chiefdoms, and key informant interviews with experts involved in the design, funding, implementation, and review of natural resources projects in Zambia. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics and an independent two-sample t-test, while qualitative data were analysed thematically. The findings reveal that post-project sustainability is weakly integrated at the project conceptualisation and design stage, with only a small proportion of projects explicitly addressing sustainability in a meaningful way. Key informant interviewees identified project design as the most critical determinant of sustainability, followed by community ownership, stakeholder engagement, monitoring and evaluation, and legal and policy frameworks. Community perspectives confirmed that most livelihood and conservation activities introduced by projects did not persist after donor withdrawal, with beekeeping being the only activity widely sustained. Statistical analysis further showed no significant difference in household incomes between project participants and non-participants, indicating limited long-term livelihood impact. The study concludes that many natural resources projects in Mumbwa GMA achieve short-term outputs but fail to generate durable livelihood and conservation outcomes. It recommends a shift towards participatory, context-specific project design that embeds post-project sustainability, strengthens community ownership, enhances capacity building, and aligns donor, government, and community priorities to ensure lasting impactReferences
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making processes through planning and budgeting in African countries. Chinese Journal of Population
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https://doi.org/10.3390/su9061018.
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Khatiwada, K. L. (2017). Implementing a Post-Project Sustainability Study (PSS) of a Development
Project: Lessons Learned from Indonesia. Policy Brief.
Lungo, M. P., Mavole, J. & Martin, O. (2017). Determinants of Project Sustainability beyond Donor
Support: Case of Caritas Norway Supported Governance Project in Mansa Diocese, Zambia. Arts and
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http://scholarworks.rit.edu/jes/vol3/iss3/5.
Mamakoa, E., Maponya, G. and Mothetha, M., (2013). The non-technical factors that affect
sustainability of borehole systems in rural communities-A study on selected villages for the ASWSD
project in Limpopo province. Available at
https://researchspace.csir.co.za/server/api/core/bitstreams/d5bb3807-8ae9-4359-9010
e889f7c0a46e/content.
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Morse, S. & McNamara, N. (2013). Sustainable Livelihood Approach: A Critique of Theory and Practice.
Business Media Dordrecht.
Moshi, B. S. (2016). Impacts of Protected Areas on Local Livelihood: A Case Study of Saadani National
Park. Master Thesis. Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of Biology.
Mwima, H.K. (2001). A brief history of Kafue National Park, Zambia. Koedoe, 44(1): .57-72.
https://doi.org/10.4102/koedoe.v44i1.186.
Platteau, J. & Gaspart, F. (2003). The ‘Elite Capture’ Problem in Participatory Development. Centre for
Research on the Economics of Development (CRED), Faculty of Economics. University of Namur.
Namur Belgium.
Redford, K. H., Roe, D. & Sunderland, T. C.H. (2013). Linking Conservation and Poverty Alleviation: A
Discussion Paper on Good and Best Practice in the Case of Great Ape Conservation. Poverty and
Conservation Learning Group. PCLG Discussion Paper No 11.
Roe, D., Booker, F., Day, M., Zhou, W., Allebone‑Webb, S., Hill, N. A. O., et al. (2015). Are alternative
livelihood projects effective at reducing local threats to specified elements of biodiversity and/or
improving or maintaining the conservation status of those elements? Environmental Evidence, 4(22)
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-015-0048-1.
Salafsky, N. and Wollenberg, E. (2000). Linking Livelihoods and Conservation: A Conceptual
Framework and Scale for Assessing the Integration of Human Needs and Biodiversity. World
Development, 28 (8):1421-1438. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00031-0.
Sayer, J., Campbell, B., Petheram, L., Aldrich, M., Perez, M. R., Dominque, E., Dongmo, Z. N., Defo,
L., Mariki, S., Doggart, N., Burgess N. (2006). Assessing environment and development outcomes in
conservation landscapes. Biodiversity Conservation, 16, 2677–2694 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531
006-9079-9.
Umar, B. B., Kapembwa, J. (2020). Economic benefits, local participation, and conservation ethic in a
game management area: Evidence from Mambwe, Zambia. Tropical Conservation Science, 13: 1-16.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1940082920971754.
White, A. T., Christie, P., D’Agnes, H., Lowry, K. & Milne, N. (2005). Designing ICM projects for
sustainability: Lessons from the Philippines and Indonesia. Ocean & Coastal Management 48, 271–296.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2005.04.007.
Wicander, S. & Coad, L. (2014). Learning Our Lessons: A Review of Alternative Livelihood Projects in
Central Africa. Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
Winiko, S.M., Mbugua, J. and Kyalo, D.N., 2018. The role of dissemination of monitoring and evaluation
results in the promotion of performance of digital education technology project in Malawi. Journal of
Educational Research, 3(11):26-44.
Conservation. Conservation and Society 5(2): 147–183. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26392879.
Amin, A., Zaehringer, J. G., Schwilch, G., Koné, I. (2015). People, protected areas and ecosystem
services: a qualitative and quantitative analysis of local people's perception and preferences in Côte
d'Ivoire. Natural Resources Forum. 97–109. https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-8947.12069.
Asian Development Bank. (2010). Special Evaluation Study on Post-Project Sustainability of ADB
Projects.
Bandyopadhyay, S. & Tembo, G. (2010). Household Consumption and Natural Resource Management
around National Parks in Zambia. Journal of Natural Resources Policy Research, 2:1, 39–55,
https://doi.org/10.1080/19390450903350838.
Biagini, B., Bierbaum, R., Stults, M., Dobardzic, S., McNeeley, S. M. (2014). A typology of adaptation
actions: A global look at climate adaptation actions financed through the Global Environment Facility.
Journal of Global Environmental Change, 97–108
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.01.003.
Bridgewater, P. (2016). The Man and Biosphere programme of UNESCO: rambunctious child of the
sixties, but was the promise fulfilled? Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 19, 1–6.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2015.08.009.
Brooks, J.S., Waylen, K. A., & Mulder, B. M. (2013). Assessing community-based conservation projects:
A systematic review and multilevel analysis of attitudinal, behavioural, ecological, and economic
outcomes. Environmental Evidence, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.1186/2047-2382-2-2.
Bwalya, B. (2007). Katanino Joint Forest Management Area, Masaiti District Zambia: Challenges and
Opportunities. Master's Thesis, Norwegian University of Life Sciences. Ås. Norway.
Chirenje, L. I., Giliba, R. A. & Musamba, E. B. (2013). Local communities’ participation in decision
making processes through planning and budgeting in African countries. Chinese Journal of Population
Resources and Environment,11(1):10–16, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10042857.2013.777198.
Cleaver, F. (1999). Paradoxes of Participation: Questioning Participatory Approaches to Development.
Journal of International Development. 11, 597-612
https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1328(199906)11:4%3C597::AID-JID610%3E3.0.CO;2-Q.
Dizdaroglu, D. (2017). The Role of Indicator-Based Sustainability Assessment in Policy and the
Decision-Making Process: A Review and Outlook. Sustainability, 1018.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su9061018.
Erdfelder, E., Faul, F. & Buchner, A. (1996). GPOWER: A general power analysis program. Behavior
Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 28(1): 1–11.
Fernández, A. (2010). Wildlife Conservation in Zambia: Impact of Game Management Areas on
Household Welfare. Master's Thesis. Michigan State University. Michigan.
Fisher, R., Maginnis S., J. W., Barrow E.., Jeanrenaud, S., (2005). Linking Conservation and Poverty
Reduction - Landscapes, People and Power. Earthscan. Oxon. UK.
FAO. (2014). Protected Areas, People and Food Security. An FAO contribution to the World Parks
Congress, Sydney, 12–19 November 2014.
Gardner, C.J., Nicoll, M.E., Mbohoahy, T., Oleson, K.L.L., Ratsifandrihamanana, A.N.I., Ratsirarson, J.,
et al. (2013). Protected areas for conservation and poverty alleviation: experiences from Madagascar.
Journal of Applied Ecology, 50:1289–1294. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12164.
Karki, S.T. (2013). Do protected areas and conservation incentives contribute to sustainable livelihoods?
A case study of Bardia National Park, Nepal. Journal of Environmental Management. 128, 988–999.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.06.054.
Khatiwada, K. L. (2017). Implementing a Post-Project Sustainability Study (PSS) of a Development
Project: Lessons Learned from Indonesia. Policy Brief.
Lungo, M. P., Mavole, J. & Martin, O. (2017). Determinants of Project Sustainability beyond Donor
Support: Case of Caritas Norway Supported Governance Project in Mansa Diocese, Zambia. Arts and
Social Sciences Journal. 8(3): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.4172/2151-6200.1000278.
Mahonge, C. (2013). Factors behind the sustainability of activities in the post-project period in Matengo
highlands in Tanzania. Journal of Environmental Sustainability, 3( 3). Available at:
http://scholarworks.rit.edu/jes/vol3/iss3/5.
Mamakoa, E., Maponya, G. and Mothetha, M., (2013). The non-technical factors that affect
sustainability of borehole systems in rural communities-A study on selected villages for the ASWSD
project in Limpopo province. Available at
https://researchspace.csir.co.za/server/api/core/bitstreams/d5bb3807-8ae9-4359-9010
e889f7c0a46e/content.
Minitab Inc. (2004). Minitab Statistical Software (Version 14) [Computer software]. State College, PA:
Minitab Inc.
Morse, S. & McNamara, N. (2013). Sustainable Livelihood Approach: A Critique of Theory and Practice.
Business Media Dordrecht.
Moshi, B. S. (2016). Impacts of Protected Areas on Local Livelihood: A Case Study of Saadani National
Park. Master Thesis. Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Department of Biology.
Mwima, H.K. (2001). A brief history of Kafue National Park, Zambia. Koedoe, 44(1): .57-72.
https://doi.org/10.4102/koedoe.v44i1.186.
Platteau, J. & Gaspart, F. (2003). The ‘Elite Capture’ Problem in Participatory Development. Centre for
Research on the Economics of Development (CRED), Faculty of Economics. University of Namur.
Namur Belgium.
Redford, K. H., Roe, D. & Sunderland, T. C.H. (2013). Linking Conservation and Poverty Alleviation: A
Discussion Paper on Good and Best Practice in the Case of Great Ape Conservation. Poverty and
Conservation Learning Group. PCLG Discussion Paper No 11.
Roe, D., Booker, F., Day, M., Zhou, W., Allebone‑Webb, S., Hill, N. A. O., et al. (2015). Are alternative
livelihood projects effective at reducing local threats to specified elements of biodiversity and/or
improving or maintaining the conservation status of those elements? Environmental Evidence, 4(22)
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-015-0048-1.
Salafsky, N. and Wollenberg, E. (2000). Linking Livelihoods and Conservation: A Conceptual
Framework and Scale for Assessing the Integration of Human Needs and Biodiversity. World
Development, 28 (8):1421-1438. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00031-0.
Sayer, J., Campbell, B., Petheram, L., Aldrich, M., Perez, M. R., Dominque, E., Dongmo, Z. N., Defo,
L., Mariki, S., Doggart, N., Burgess N. (2006). Assessing environment and development outcomes in
conservation landscapes. Biodiversity Conservation, 16, 2677–2694 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531
006-9079-9.
Umar, B. B., Kapembwa, J. (2020). Economic benefits, local participation, and conservation ethic in a
game management area: Evidence from Mambwe, Zambia. Tropical Conservation Science, 13: 1-16.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1940082920971754.
White, A. T., Christie, P., D’Agnes, H., Lowry, K. & Milne, N. (2005). Designing ICM projects for
sustainability: Lessons from the Philippines and Indonesia. Ocean & Coastal Management 48, 271–296.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2005.04.007.
Wicander, S. & Coad, L. (2014). Learning Our Lessons: A Review of Alternative Livelihood Projects in
Central Africa. Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
Winiko, S.M., Mbugua, J. and Kyalo, D.N., 2018. The role of dissemination of monitoring and evaluation
results in the promotion of performance of digital education technology project in Malawi. Journal of
Educational Research, 3(11):26-44.
Published
2026-01-19
How to Cite
[1]
A. Kalaluka, “Post-Project Sustainability in Natural Resources Conservation: Evidence From The Mumbwa Game Management Area, Zambia.”, Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 9-31, Jan. 2026.
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