Smallholder Women Empowerment: The Case of Norwegian Agricultural Programme in Senanga, Zambia
Keywords:
Women Empowerment, Smallholder Agriculture, Gender Impact Assessment, Rural Livelihoods, Zambia, CARE Empowerment Framework
Abstract
Women smallholder farmers often face significant institutional and socio cultural barriers that limit their productivity and decision-making power. This study assesses the impact of the NORAD-financed Women Empowerment Programme on the livelihoods of smallholder women farmers in Senanga District, Zambia. It utilised a mixed-methods approach grounded in CARE International’s Women’s Empowerment Framework, which examines the dimensions of agency, structure, and relations. Data were collected from 50 randomly selected beneficiaries through semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. The findings reveal that while the programme successfully improved access to agricultural inputs, with 74% and 72% of beneficiaries receiving seed and fertiliser, respectively, it failed to provide critical market linkages or credit support. The study identified that the ‘self-targeting’ approach relied heavily on pre-existing farmer groups, leading to potential inclusion errors and the exclusion of the most vulnerable women. However, positive impacts were observed in the domain of relational empowerment; beneficiaries reported improved cooperation with their spouses and greater participation in household decision-making on land use and income. The study concludes that while the programme contributed to food security and social agency, the lack of economic integration restricts its potential for sustainable women’s empowerment. These results suggest that future interventions must prioritise market access and robust targeting strategies to achieve transformative gender equality in agriculture.References
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World Bank and IBRD, 2009. Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook. Washington, DC: World Bank
Publications.
Assessment. Washington, DC: World Bank Publications.
Akter, S., Rutsaert, P., Luis, J., Htwe, N.M., San, S.S., Raharjo, B. and Pustika, A., (2017). Women’s
empowerment and gender equity in agriculture: A different perspective from Southeast Asia. Food
Policy, 69, pp.270–279.
Alkire, S., Meinzen-Dick, R., Peterman, A., Quisumbing, A., Seymour, G. and Vaz, A., (2013). The
women’s empowerment in agriculture index. World Development, 52, pp.71–91.
Agarwal, B., (2001). Participatory exclusions: Community forestry and gender – An analysis of South
Asia and conceptual framework. World Development, 29(10), pp.1623–1648.
Barrett, C.B., (2002). Food Aid Effectiveness: Is the Targeting, Stupid! Cornell University Applied
Economics and Management Working Paper, No. 2002-43.
Bonilla, J., Zarzur, R.C., Handa, S., Nowlin, C., Peterman, A., Ring, H., Seidenfeld, D. and Team,
Z.C.G.P.E., (2017). Cash for women’s empowerment? A mixed-methods evaluation of the government
of Zambia’s child grant program. World Development, 95, pp.55–72.
CARE International, (2006). Strategic Impact Inquiry on Women’s Empowerment: Global Phase 2
Synthesis Report. CARE International.
Chapoto, A., Jayne, T.S. and Mason, N.M., (2007). Security of widows’ access to land in the era of
HIV/AIDS: Panel survey evidence from Zambia. Food Security Collaborative Policy Brief, No. 22.
Michigan State University, Department of Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics. DOI:
10.22004/ag.econ.54628.
Deere, C.D., Oduro, A.D., Swaminathan, H. and Doss, C., (2013). Property rights and the gender
distribution of wealth in Ecuador, Ghana and India. The Journal of Economic Inequality, 11(2), pp.249
265.
FAO, (2011). The State of Food and Agriculture 2010–2011: Women in Agriculture – Closing the Gender
Gap. Rome: FAO.
FAO, (2013). The Gender and Equity Implications of Land-Related Investments on Land Access, Labour
and Income-Generating Opportunities: A Case Study of Selected Agricultural Investments in Zambia.
Rome: FAO.
Government of the Republic of Zambia (GRZ), 2010. Senanga District Situational Analysis. Lusaka:
Government Printers.
Kabeer, N., (1999). Resources, agency, achievements: Reflections on the measurement of women’s
empowerment. Development & Change, 30(3), pp.435–464.
Kwashimbisa, M. and Puskur, R., (2014). Gender Situational Analysis of the Barotse Floodplain. CGIAR
Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems. Penang: WorldFish.
Lanz, K., Bieri, S. and Fankhauser, L., (2012). Critical Gender Issues with Regard to Food, Land, and
Water: A Compendium for Policymakers, NGOs, and Researchers.
Molyneux, M., (2007). The chimera of success: Gender ennui and the changed international policy
environment. In: Feminisms in Development: Contradictions, Contestations and Challenges, pp.227
249.
Oumer, A.M., Tiruneh, W.G. and Tizale, C.Y., (2014). Empowering smallholder women farmers through
participatory seed potato management: Lessons from Welmera District, Ethiopia. Journal of Sustainable
Development, 7(5), p.93.
Pelekamoyo, J., Umar, B. B. (2019). Access to and control over agricultural labour and income in
smallholder farming households: a gendered look from Chipata, Eastern Zambia. Journal of Gender,
Agriculture and Food Security, 4 (2): 42-57.
Peterman, A., Behrman, J.A. and Quisumbing, A.R., (2014). A review of empirical evidence on gender
differences in nonland agricultural inputs, technology, and services in developing countries. Gender in
Agriculture, pp.145–186.
Prato, B. and Longo, R., (2012). Empowerment of poor rural people through initiatives in agriculture and
natural resource management. In: Poverty Reduction and Pro-Poor Growth: The Role of Empowerment,
pp.51–78.
Quisumbing, A.R. and Pandolfelli, L., (2010). Promising approaches to address the needs of poor female
farmers: Resources, constraints, and interventions. World Development, 38(4), pp.581–592.
Quisumbing, A.R., Rubin, D., Manfre, C., Waithanji, E., Van den Bold, M., Olney, D., et al(2015).
Gender, assets, and market-oriented agriculture: Learning from high-value crop and livestock projects in
Africa and Asia. Agriculture and Human Values, 32(4), pp.705–725.
Rajaratnam, S., Cole, S.M., Fox, K.M., Dierksmeirer, B., Puskur, R., Zulu, F., Jiau, T.S. and Situmo, J.,
(2015). Social and Gender Analysis Report: Barotse Floodplain, Western Province, Zambia.
Ransom, E. and Bain, C. (2011). Gendering agricultural aid: An analysis of whether international
development assistance targets women and gender. Gender & Society, 25(1), pp.48–74.
Sharp, K., (2001). An Overview of Targeting Approaches for Food-Assisted Programming. CARE USA,
PHLS Unit.
Srivastava, P., (2004). Poverty Targeting in Asia: Country Experience of India. ADBI Discussion Paper
No. 5.
Verboom, W.C. and Brunt, M.A., (1970). An Ecological Survey of Western Province, Zambia, with
Special Reference to the Fodder Resources, the Grasslands and Their Development.
Umar, B.B., Nyanga, P.H. (2023). Customary Land Certification, Governance and Natural Resource Use
in Zambia: A Social Learning Approach. European Journal of Development Research, 35, 997–1027.
Waller, M.K., (2014). Empowering Women through Savings Groups: A Study from the Wellness and
Agriculture for Life Advancement (WALA) Programme. Baltimore: Catholic Relief Services.
World Bank and IBRD, 2009. Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook. Washington, DC: World Bank
Publications.
Published
2026-01-19
How to Cite
[1]
J. Konnie, “Smallholder Women Empowerment: The Case of Norwegian Agricultural Programme in Senanga, Zambia”, Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 54-75, Jan. 2026.
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