A deterministic risk assessment of the human exposure to Cadmium, Lead and Chromium through the consumption of well and bottled water in Lusaka District, Zambia
Keywords:
Carcinogenic risk, heavy metal pollution, Human health risk assessment, non-carcinogenic risk, Zambia
Abstract
The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal number six is to ‘Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all, which is an essential component for human survival. Access to safe drinking water is essential for health, a basic human right and a component of effective policy for health protection. Safe drinking water implies that the water does not represent any significant risk to health over a lifetime of consumption, including different sensitivities that may occur between life stages. However, water is prone to contamination with heavy metals through natural and anthropogenic sources, making it unsuitable for human consumption due to the cumulative potential risks associated with the presence of heavy metals. This study was conducted to assess the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk of human exposure to cadmium, lead and chromium through the consumption of well and bottled water in Lusaka district of Zambia. Secondary data was used to determine the mean concentrations of heavy metals in well and bottled water in Lusaka district as well as to calculate the hazard index (non-carcinogenic risk) and cancer risk for the metals under study. The results revealed that a hazard index for cadmium, lead and chromium in both well and bottled water was higher than 1, indicating adverse effects on human health over a lifetime of consumption. Similarly, the total cancer risk through exposure to cadmium and chromium in well and bottled water was 1.2 x 10-1 and 2.25 x 10-1, respectively, higher than the safe threshold limit set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) of 1 × 10−4. The study concludes that there is a possible non-carcinogenic risk of exposure to cadmium, lead and chromium through the consumption of well and bottled water in Lusaka district. Further, the study concludes that there is a possible carcinogenic risk of exposure to cadmium and chromium through the consumption of both well and bottled water. Owing to the proportion of both well and bottled water samples that exceeded the Zambia Bureau of Standards threshold limit, cadmium poses the greatest concern and requires intervention to reduce exposure. Therefore, it is recommended that heavy metal concentrations in drinking water should be periodically monitored to minimize health risks to consumers.References
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Alidadi H., Sany S., Oftadeh B., Mohamad D., Shamszade E. and Fakhari M. (2019). Health Risk Assessments of Arsenic and Toxic Heavy Metal Exposure in Drinking Water in Northeast Iran. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine (2019) 24:59 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-019-0812-x.
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Banfalvi G. (2011). Heavy Metals, Trace Elements and their Cellular Effects. Springer. New York, pp 3-28.
Baumle R. and Museteka L. (2008). Development of a Groundwater Information and Management Program for the Lusaka Groundwater Systems Report No.1. Groundwater Chemistry of Springs and Water Supply Wells in Lusaka: Results of the Sampling Campaigns Conducted in 2008. Department of Water Affairs, Zambia & Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources, Germany.
Bellinger D, Sloman J, Leviton A, Rabonowitz M., Needleman H., Waternaux C (1991). Low-level Lead Exposure and Children's Cognitive Function in the Preschool Years. Pediatrics. 1991; 87:219-227.
Bempah C.K. and Ewusi A. (2016). Heavy Metals Contamination and Human Health Risk Assessment around Obuasi Gold Mine in Ghana. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2016; 188:261.
CDC (2022). Health Effects of Lead Exposure. https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/prevention/health-effects.htm
Duruibe, J. O.1, Ogwuegbu, M. O. C. and Egwurugwu, J. N. (2007). Heavy Metal Pollution and Human Bio-toxic Effects. International Journal of Physical Sciences Vol. 2 (5), pp. 112-118, May, 2007.
FWR (1996). Tap Water Consumption in England and Wales: Findings from the 1995 National Survey. Report No DWI0771.
Godt J., Scheidig F., Grosse-Siestrup C., Esche V., Brandenburg P., Reich A., & Groneberg D. A. (2006). The Toxicity of Cadmium and Resulting Hazards for Human Health. Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology (London, England), 1, 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/1745-6673-1-22
Gofti-Laroche L., Potelon J. L., Da Silva E. and Zmirou, D. (2001) Description of Drinking Water Intake in French Communities (E.MIRA study). Rev. Epidemiol. Sante Publique 49(5), 411–422.
Haiyana L., Anbang S., Mingyi L. and Xiaoran Z. (2013). Effect of pH, Temperature, Dissolved Oxygen and Flow Rate of Overlying Water on Heavy Metals Release from Storm Sewer Sediments. Journal of Chemistry. Vol 13, Article ID 434012. 11 Pages.
He Z.L., Yang X.E. and Stoffella P.J. (2005). Trace Elements in Agro-ecosystems and Impacts on the Environment. J Trace Elem Med Biol.; 19(2–3):125–140. [PubMed: 16325528]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16325528/
Howard G. and Bartram J. (2003). Domestic Water Quantity, Service Level and Health. World Health Organization. Geneva.
Hyuno S.K. and Young R.S. (2015). An Overview of Carcinogenic Heavy Metal: Molecular Toxicity Mechanism and Prevention. Journal of Cancer Prevention. 2015 Dec; 20(4): 232–240. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4699750/
Jaishankar M., Tseten T., Anbalagan N., Mathew B. B. and Beeregowda, K. N. (2014). Toxicity, Mechanism and Health Effects of some Heavy Metals. Interdisciplinary Toxicology, 7(2), 60–72. https://doi.org/10.2478/intox-2014-0009
Kabata-Pendias A. and Szteke B. (2015). Trace Elements in Abiotic and Biotic Environments. CRC Press; Boca Raton, FL, USA. https://doi.org/10.1201/b18198
Kampeshi, C.H. (2003). Lusaka Groundwater Contamination Assessment Project. Volume 1: Main Report – Environmental Council of Zambia & Canadian International Development Agency; Unpublished Report; 164 pages, Lusaka.
Khan S., Shah I.A., Muhammad S., Malik R.N. and Shah M. (2015) Arsenic and Heavy Metal Concentrations in Drinking Water in Pakistan and Risk Assessment: A Case Study, Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 21:4, 1020-1031. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2014.950925
Krajnc E. (1987) Integrated Criteria Document. Cadmium — Effects. Appendix. Bilthoven, National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection (Report No. 758476004). https://www.worldcat.org/title/integrated-criteria-document-cadmium-effects/oclc/66166271?referer=di&ht=edition
Lavallee S., Latchmore T., Hynds P., Brown R., Schuster C., Anderson S. and Majury A. (2021). Drinking Water Consumption Patterns among Private Well Users in Ontario: Implications for Exposure Assessment of Waterborne Infection. Risk Anal. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.13676
Linos A., Petralias A. and Christophi C.A. (2011). Oral Ingestion of Hexavalent Chromium through Drinking Water and Cancer Mortality in an Industrial Area of Greece-An Ecological Study. Environ Health; 10:50. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-10-50
Majid M., Abbas A., Masoud Y., Ramin N. N., Nader Y., M. and Hossein M. (2017). Heavy Metal Contamination and Health Risk Assessment in Drinking Water of Sistan and Baluchistan, Southeastern Iran, Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 23:8.
Manz F. and Wentz A. (2005). Hydration Status in the United States and Germany. International Life Sciences Institute. https://doi.org/10.1301/nr.2005.jun.S55–S62
Mohammadi A.A., Zareib A., Majidic S., Ghaderpouryd A. and Hashempoure Y. (2019). Carcinogenic and Non-Carcinogenic Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Drinking Water of Khorramabad, Iran. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2019.07.017
Mucheleng’anga, G. C. (2007). Water Quality in Shallow Wells of George Township in Lusaka Zambia and its Possible Health Effects. Mini-Dissertation: Magister in Environmental Management, University of Free State, Bloemfontein. Retrieved from http://dspace.unza.zm/handle/123456789/1637
Nachiyunde K., Ikeda H., Okuda T. and Nishijima W. (2013). Assessment of Dissolved Heavy Metal Pollution in Five Provinces of Zambia. Journal of Environmental Protection, 2013, 4, 80-85. https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2013.41b015
Nambeye A. (2017). An Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination of Groundwater in George Compound of Lusaka. A dissertation submitted to the University of Zambia in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of degree of Master of Science in Environmental and Natural Resources Management. UNZA. Lusaka. http://dspace.unza.zm/handle/123456789/5572?show=full
Nick A., Museteka L. and Kringel R. (2010). Development of a Groundwater Information & Management Program for the Lusaka Groundwater Systems: Technical Note No. 3. Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ: Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung). Lusaka.
NWASCO (2014). National Water Supply and Sanitation Council. Urban and Peri-Urban WSS Sector Reports. Lusaka. http://www.nwasco.org.zm/jdownloads/Publications/Urban%20and%20Peri-Urban%20WSS%20Sector%20Reports/sector_report_2014.pdf
Onyinyechi G. O. and Emeka D. A. (2018). Human Health Risk Assessment of some Heavy Metals in a Rural Spring, South-Eastern Nigeria. African Journal of Environment and Natural Science Research. Vol.1, No.1, pp.15-23, 2018.
Paolo L., Luca Z., Massimo C., Antonio G. and Aquila R. (2019). Critical Care Nephrology. Third Edition. Elsevier.
Pawełczyk A. (2013). Assessment of Health Risk Associated with Persistent Organic Pollutants in Water. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185(1), 497–508. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2570-8
Popkin, B.M and Jebb, S. (2010). Beverage Patterns and Trends in the United Kingdom. University of North Carolina; Chapel Hill.
Roscoe R.J., Ball W. (2002). Adult Blood Lead Epidemiology and Surveillance---United States, 1998-2001. MMWR Surveillance Summary. 2002; 51:1. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5111a1.htm
Salihu N., Yau N. and Babandi A. (2019). Heavy Metals Concentration and Human Health Risk Assessment in Groundwater and Table Water sold in Tudun Murtala Area, Nassarawa Local Government Area, Kano State, Nigeria. J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manage. Vol. 23 (8) 1445-1448 August 2019.
San Mauro Martín I., Garicano Vilar E., Romo Orozco D. A., Mendive Dubourdieu P., Paredes Barato V., Rincón Barrado M., Valente A., Bentancor F., Morales Hurtado A. D., and Garagarza C. (2017). Hydration Status: Influence of Exercise and Diet Quality. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 13(4), 414–423. https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827617711906
Sharma P., Bihari V. and Agarwal S.K. (2012). Groundwater Contaminated with Hexavalent Chromium [Cr (VI)]: A Health Survey and Clinical Examination of Community Inhabitants (Kanpur, India). PLoS One; 7, e47877. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0047877
Stern A.H. (2010). A Quantitative Assessment of the Carcinogenicity of Hexavalent Chromium by the Oral Route and its Relevance to Human Exposure. Environmental Research, Volume 110, Issue 8, 2010. Pages 798-807, ISSN 0013-9351.
Sun, H., Brocato, J.and Costa, M. (2015). Oral Chromium Exposure and Toxicity. Curr Envir Health Rpt 2, 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-015-0054-z.
Tchounwou P., Yedjou C., Patlolla A., and Sutton D. (2012). Heavy Metals Toxicity and the Environment. NIH-RCMI Center for Environmental Health, College of Science, Engineering and Technology, Jackson State University, Jackson, USA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7643-8340-4_6
USEPA (1991). Health Effects Summary Tables, FY-1991 Annual. Office of Research and Development, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Washington, DC OERR 9200.6-303(91-1).
USEPA (2005). Human Health Risk Assessment: Guidance for Risk Characterization. https://archive.epa.gov/epawaste/hazard/tsd/td/web/pdf/05hhrap7.pdf
USEPA (2012). 2012 Edition of the Drinking Water Standards and Health Advisories. Washington. DC. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc949421/m2/1/high_res_d/dwstandards2012.pdf
USEPA (2016). IRIS Assessments; United States Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, USA, 2016. Available online: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris2/atoz.cfm
USEPA (2021). National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/national-primary-drinking-water-regulations on 28th July, 2021.
Waterwitness (2022). Case Study Briefing: The Crisis of Poor Water Supply, Inadequate Sanitation and Chronic Groundwater Pollution Facing Lusaka -Evidence from George Compound. Retrieved from https://waterwitness.org. George-case-study-brief on 19th April, 2022.
Water Quality Association (2013). Cadmium. Illinois. https://www.wqa.org/learn-about-water/common-contaminants/cadmium.
Westrell T., Andersson Y. and Stenstro T.A (2006). Drinking Water Consumption Patterns in Sweden. Journal of Water and Health: 04.4 .2006.
WHO (2003). Domestic Water Quantity, Service Level and Health. Geneva. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240015241
WHO (2004). Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. Vol. 1: 3rd Edition. Geneva. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42852/9241546387.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
WHO (2010a). Exposure to Cadmium: A Major Public Health Concern. Geneva, Switzerland. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/329480/WHO-CED-PHE-EPE-19.4.3-eng.pdf
WHO (2010b). Childhood Lead Poisoning. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/childhood-lead-poisoning
WHO (2019). Fact Sheet: Lead Poisoning and Health. Geneva. Retrieved on 20th March, 2021.
ZABS (2000). Zambia Bureau of Standards Bottled Drinking Water: Specification. private report, Lusaka.
ZABS (2010). Zambia Bureau of Standards. Drinking Water Quality – Specification. Lusaka. http://www.puntofocal.gov.ar/notific_otros_miembros/zmb48_t.pdf
ZCSA (2021). Zambia Compulsory Standards Agency. ZS 388: Bottled Water Test Results-DQM. Lusaka (Unpublished).
Zhang, J. and Li, X. (1987) Chromium Pollution of Soil and Water in Jinzhou. Chinese Journal of Preventive Medicine, 21, 262-264.
ZSA (2020). Zambia Statistical Agency. Projected Population and Eligible Voting Population 2020. Lusaka. https://www.zamstats.gov.zm/publications/
Alidadi H., Sany S., Oftadeh B., Mohamad D., Shamszade E. and Fakhari M. (2019). Health Risk Assessments of Arsenic and Toxic Heavy Metal Exposure in Drinking Water in Northeast Iran. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine (2019) 24:59 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-019-0812-x.
ATSDR (2012). Toxicological Profile for Chromium. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, US Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, Georgia. Available at: www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp.asp?id=62&tid=17.
Banfalvi G. (2011). Heavy Metals, Trace Elements and their Cellular Effects. Springer. New York, pp 3-28.
Baumle R. and Museteka L. (2008). Development of a Groundwater Information and Management Program for the Lusaka Groundwater Systems Report No.1. Groundwater Chemistry of Springs and Water Supply Wells in Lusaka: Results of the Sampling Campaigns Conducted in 2008. Department of Water Affairs, Zambia & Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources, Germany.
Bellinger D, Sloman J, Leviton A, Rabonowitz M., Needleman H., Waternaux C (1991). Low-level Lead Exposure and Children's Cognitive Function in the Preschool Years. Pediatrics. 1991; 87:219-227.
Bempah C.K. and Ewusi A. (2016). Heavy Metals Contamination and Human Health Risk Assessment around Obuasi Gold Mine in Ghana. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2016; 188:261.
CDC (2022). Health Effects of Lead Exposure. https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/prevention/health-effects.htm
Duruibe, J. O.1, Ogwuegbu, M. O. C. and Egwurugwu, J. N. (2007). Heavy Metal Pollution and Human Bio-toxic Effects. International Journal of Physical Sciences Vol. 2 (5), pp. 112-118, May, 2007.
FWR (1996). Tap Water Consumption in England and Wales: Findings from the 1995 National Survey. Report No DWI0771.
Godt J., Scheidig F., Grosse-Siestrup C., Esche V., Brandenburg P., Reich A., & Groneberg D. A. (2006). The Toxicity of Cadmium and Resulting Hazards for Human Health. Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology (London, England), 1, 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/1745-6673-1-22
Gofti-Laroche L., Potelon J. L., Da Silva E. and Zmirou, D. (2001) Description of Drinking Water Intake in French Communities (E.MIRA study). Rev. Epidemiol. Sante Publique 49(5), 411–422.
Haiyana L., Anbang S., Mingyi L. and Xiaoran Z. (2013). Effect of pH, Temperature, Dissolved Oxygen and Flow Rate of Overlying Water on Heavy Metals Release from Storm Sewer Sediments. Journal of Chemistry. Vol 13, Article ID 434012. 11 Pages.
He Z.L., Yang X.E. and Stoffella P.J. (2005). Trace Elements in Agro-ecosystems and Impacts on the Environment. J Trace Elem Med Biol.; 19(2–3):125–140. [PubMed: 16325528]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16325528/
Howard G. and Bartram J. (2003). Domestic Water Quantity, Service Level and Health. World Health Organization. Geneva.
Hyuno S.K. and Young R.S. (2015). An Overview of Carcinogenic Heavy Metal: Molecular Toxicity Mechanism and Prevention. Journal of Cancer Prevention. 2015 Dec; 20(4): 232–240. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4699750/
Jaishankar M., Tseten T., Anbalagan N., Mathew B. B. and Beeregowda, K. N. (2014). Toxicity, Mechanism and Health Effects of some Heavy Metals. Interdisciplinary Toxicology, 7(2), 60–72. https://doi.org/10.2478/intox-2014-0009
Kabata-Pendias A. and Szteke B. (2015). Trace Elements in Abiotic and Biotic Environments. CRC Press; Boca Raton, FL, USA. https://doi.org/10.1201/b18198
Kampeshi, C.H. (2003). Lusaka Groundwater Contamination Assessment Project. Volume 1: Main Report – Environmental Council of Zambia & Canadian International Development Agency; Unpublished Report; 164 pages, Lusaka.
Khan S., Shah I.A., Muhammad S., Malik R.N. and Shah M. (2015) Arsenic and Heavy Metal Concentrations in Drinking Water in Pakistan and Risk Assessment: A Case Study, Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 21:4, 1020-1031. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2014.950925
Krajnc E. (1987) Integrated Criteria Document. Cadmium — Effects. Appendix. Bilthoven, National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection (Report No. 758476004). https://www.worldcat.org/title/integrated-criteria-document-cadmium-effects/oclc/66166271?referer=di&ht=edition
Lavallee S., Latchmore T., Hynds P., Brown R., Schuster C., Anderson S. and Majury A. (2021). Drinking Water Consumption Patterns among Private Well Users in Ontario: Implications for Exposure Assessment of Waterborne Infection. Risk Anal. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.13676
Linos A., Petralias A. and Christophi C.A. (2011). Oral Ingestion of Hexavalent Chromium through Drinking Water and Cancer Mortality in an Industrial Area of Greece-An Ecological Study. Environ Health; 10:50. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-10-50
Majid M., Abbas A., Masoud Y., Ramin N. N., Nader Y., M. and Hossein M. (2017). Heavy Metal Contamination and Health Risk Assessment in Drinking Water of Sistan and Baluchistan, Southeastern Iran, Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 23:8.
Manz F. and Wentz A. (2005). Hydration Status in the United States and Germany. International Life Sciences Institute. https://doi.org/10.1301/nr.2005.jun.S55–S62
Mohammadi A.A., Zareib A., Majidic S., Ghaderpouryd A. and Hashempoure Y. (2019). Carcinogenic and Non-Carcinogenic Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Drinking Water of Khorramabad, Iran. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2019.07.017
Mucheleng’anga, G. C. (2007). Water Quality in Shallow Wells of George Township in Lusaka Zambia and its Possible Health Effects. Mini-Dissertation: Magister in Environmental Management, University of Free State, Bloemfontein. Retrieved from http://dspace.unza.zm/handle/123456789/1637
Nachiyunde K., Ikeda H., Okuda T. and Nishijima W. (2013). Assessment of Dissolved Heavy Metal Pollution in Five Provinces of Zambia. Journal of Environmental Protection, 2013, 4, 80-85. https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2013.41b015
Nambeye A. (2017). An Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination of Groundwater in George Compound of Lusaka. A dissertation submitted to the University of Zambia in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of degree of Master of Science in Environmental and Natural Resources Management. UNZA. Lusaka. http://dspace.unza.zm/handle/123456789/5572?show=full
Nick A., Museteka L. and Kringel R. (2010). Development of a Groundwater Information & Management Program for the Lusaka Groundwater Systems: Technical Note No. 3. Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ: Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung). Lusaka.
NWASCO (2014). National Water Supply and Sanitation Council. Urban and Peri-Urban WSS Sector Reports. Lusaka. http://www.nwasco.org.zm/jdownloads/Publications/Urban%20and%20Peri-Urban%20WSS%20Sector%20Reports/sector_report_2014.pdf
Onyinyechi G. O. and Emeka D. A. (2018). Human Health Risk Assessment of some Heavy Metals in a Rural Spring, South-Eastern Nigeria. African Journal of Environment and Natural Science Research. Vol.1, No.1, pp.15-23, 2018.
Paolo L., Luca Z., Massimo C., Antonio G. and Aquila R. (2019). Critical Care Nephrology. Third Edition. Elsevier.
Pawełczyk A. (2013). Assessment of Health Risk Associated with Persistent Organic Pollutants in Water. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185(1), 497–508. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2570-8
Popkin, B.M and Jebb, S. (2010). Beverage Patterns and Trends in the United Kingdom. University of North Carolina; Chapel Hill.
Roscoe R.J., Ball W. (2002). Adult Blood Lead Epidemiology and Surveillance---United States, 1998-2001. MMWR Surveillance Summary. 2002; 51:1. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5111a1.htm
Salihu N., Yau N. and Babandi A. (2019). Heavy Metals Concentration and Human Health Risk Assessment in Groundwater and Table Water sold in Tudun Murtala Area, Nassarawa Local Government Area, Kano State, Nigeria. J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manage. Vol. 23 (8) 1445-1448 August 2019.
San Mauro Martín I., Garicano Vilar E., Romo Orozco D. A., Mendive Dubourdieu P., Paredes Barato V., Rincón Barrado M., Valente A., Bentancor F., Morales Hurtado A. D., and Garagarza C. (2017). Hydration Status: Influence of Exercise and Diet Quality. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 13(4), 414–423. https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827617711906
Sharma P., Bihari V. and Agarwal S.K. (2012). Groundwater Contaminated with Hexavalent Chromium [Cr (VI)]: A Health Survey and Clinical Examination of Community Inhabitants (Kanpur, India). PLoS One; 7, e47877. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0047877
Stern A.H. (2010). A Quantitative Assessment of the Carcinogenicity of Hexavalent Chromium by the Oral Route and its Relevance to Human Exposure. Environmental Research, Volume 110, Issue 8, 2010. Pages 798-807, ISSN 0013-9351.
Sun, H., Brocato, J.and Costa, M. (2015). Oral Chromium Exposure and Toxicity. Curr Envir Health Rpt 2, 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-015-0054-z.
Tchounwou P., Yedjou C., Patlolla A., and Sutton D. (2012). Heavy Metals Toxicity and the Environment. NIH-RCMI Center for Environmental Health, College of Science, Engineering and Technology, Jackson State University, Jackson, USA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7643-8340-4_6
USEPA (1991). Health Effects Summary Tables, FY-1991 Annual. Office of Research and Development, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Washington, DC OERR 9200.6-303(91-1).
USEPA (2005). Human Health Risk Assessment: Guidance for Risk Characterization. https://archive.epa.gov/epawaste/hazard/tsd/td/web/pdf/05hhrap7.pdf
USEPA (2012). 2012 Edition of the Drinking Water Standards and Health Advisories. Washington. DC. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc949421/m2/1/high_res_d/dwstandards2012.pdf
USEPA (2016). IRIS Assessments; United States Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, USA, 2016. Available online: https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris2/atoz.cfm
USEPA (2021). National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/national-primary-drinking-water-regulations on 28th July, 2021.
Waterwitness (2022). Case Study Briefing: The Crisis of Poor Water Supply, Inadequate Sanitation and Chronic Groundwater Pollution Facing Lusaka -Evidence from George Compound. Retrieved from https://waterwitness.org. George-case-study-brief on 19th April, 2022.
Water Quality Association (2013). Cadmium. Illinois. https://www.wqa.org/learn-about-water/common-contaminants/cadmium.
Westrell T., Andersson Y. and Stenstro T.A (2006). Drinking Water Consumption Patterns in Sweden. Journal of Water and Health: 04.4 .2006.
WHO (2003). Domestic Water Quantity, Service Level and Health. Geneva. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240015241
WHO (2004). Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. Vol. 1: 3rd Edition. Geneva. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42852/9241546387.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
WHO (2010a). Exposure to Cadmium: A Major Public Health Concern. Geneva, Switzerland. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/329480/WHO-CED-PHE-EPE-19.4.3-eng.pdf
WHO (2010b). Childhood Lead Poisoning. Geneva, Switzerland. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/childhood-lead-poisoning
WHO (2019). Fact Sheet: Lead Poisoning and Health. Geneva. Retrieved on 20th March, 2021.
ZABS (2000). Zambia Bureau of Standards Bottled Drinking Water: Specification. private report, Lusaka.
ZABS (2010). Zambia Bureau of Standards. Drinking Water Quality – Specification. Lusaka. http://www.puntofocal.gov.ar/notific_otros_miembros/zmb48_t.pdf
ZCSA (2021). Zambia Compulsory Standards Agency. ZS 388: Bottled Water Test Results-DQM. Lusaka (Unpublished).
Zhang, J. and Li, X. (1987) Chromium Pollution of Soil and Water in Jinzhou. Chinese Journal of Preventive Medicine, 21, 262-264.
ZSA (2020). Zambia Statistical Agency. Projected Population and Eligible Voting Population 2020. Lusaka. https://www.zamstats.gov.zm/publications/
Published
2023-02-28
How to Cite
1.
Banda M, Muma J, Bumbangi F, M’kandawire E, Mukuma M, Munyeme M, Musawa G, Ndaki E, Benhard V, Mumba C. A deterministic risk assessment of the human exposure to Cadmium, Lead and Chromium through the consumption of well and bottled water in Lusaka District, Zambia. University of Zambia Journal of Agricultural and Biomedical Sciences [Internet]. 28Feb.2023 [cited 3Jul.2024];6(2). Available from: https://journals.unza.zm/index.php/JABS/article/view/914
Section
General